LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

^ 

c 

Class 


ANGUS  SINCLAIR 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING 


AND 


MANAGEMENT. 


Showing  How  to  Manage  Locomotive  in  Running  Different 
Kinds  of  Trains  with  Economy  and  Dispatch  ;  Giving 
Plain  Descriptions  of  Valve-Gear,  I?ijectors,  Brakes, 
Lubricators,  and  Other  Locomotive  Attachments  ; 
Treating  on  the  Economical  Use  of  Fuel  and 
Steam;  and  Presenting  Valuable  Direc- 
tions about  the  Care,  Management, 
and  Repairs  of  Locomotives 
and  their  Connections. 


BY 


ANGUS   SINCLAIR, 

Member  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Locomotive  Engineers;  of  the  American 

Railway  Master  Mechanics'  Association  ;  of  the  American 

Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  etc. 


TWENTY-SECOND  EDITION,  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED. 
TOTAL   ISSUE,    TWENTY-FOUR   THOUSAND. 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

NEW  YORK ; 

^JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS. 
LONDON  :   CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  LIMITED. 
1908. 


Copyright,  1899,  1908, 

BY 

ANGUS  SINCLAIR, 


ROBERT   DRUMMOND,    PRINTER,  NEW   YORK. 


PREFACE. 


. 

WHILE  following  the  occupation  of  a  locomotive 
engineer,  I  often  observed  peculiarities  about  the 
working  of  my  engine,  while  running,  that  I  did  not 
entirely  understand.  As  I  was  perfectly  aware,  even 
before  making  my  first  trip  on  a  loc'omotive  engine, 
that  there  is  no  effect  without  a  cause,  I  never  felt 
satisfied  to  accept  any  thing  as  incomprehensible 
without  investigation,  and  fell  into  the  habit  of  noting 
down  facts  about  the  working  of  the  engine,  with  the 
view  of  studying  out,  at  leisure,  any  thing  which  was 
not  quite  clear.  When,  some  years  ago,  I  abandoned 
engine-running  to  take  charge  of  the  round-house  at 
the  mechanical  headquarters  of  the  Burlington,  Cedar 
Rapids,  and  Northern  Railway,  in  Iowa,  the  practice 
of  keeping  notes  was  continued.  The  work  connected 
with  the  ordinary  repairing  of  running-engines,  the 
emergency  repairing  executed  to  get  engines  ready 
hurriedly  to  meet  the  traffic  demands  on  a  road  then 
chronically  short  of  power,  and  diagnosing  the  nu- 

202051 


PREFACE  TO  TWENTY-SECOND  EDITION. 


THE  period  of  twenty-three  years  and  a  half  that 
elapsed  since  the  first  edition  of  Locomotive  Engine 
Running  and  Management  was  published  has  seen  the 
introduction  of  many  additions  to  the  appliances  used 
in  operating  the  locomotive,  but  the  engine  itself  has 
been  changed  very  little,  except  being  made  larger. 
Progress  in  locomotive  engineering  is  largely  repre- 
sented by  improvements  upon  the  appliances  referred 
to,  and  to  the  introduction  of  new  ones.  In  preparing 
the  twenty-second  edition  of  Locomotive  Engine  Run- 
ning and  Management  it  has  been  my  aim  to  make  the 
book  a  certain  and  safe  manual  of  instruction  to  the 
modern  locomotive  engineer.  The  best  practice  in  hand- 
ling locomotives  has  been  made  as  plain  as  possible  and 
the  principles  of  locomotive  engineering,  which  embraces 
information  concerning  heat,  steam,  and  motive  power, 
have  been  explained  in  words  that  will  be  understood  by 
every  person  who  can  read. 

Strict  examination  before  promotion  is  every  day  be- 
coming more  exacting  for  those  to  be  trusted  with  the 
running  of  locomotives.  In  view  of  this  condition  so 
important  to  train  men,  I  have  devoted  unusual  space 
to  a  catechism  of  motive  power  and  of  train  operating. 

vii 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

Locomotive  Engine  Running  and  Management  has 
been  a  guide,  tutor,  and  friend  to  many  railroad  men,  and 
thousands  of  officials  are  willing  to  admit  that  it  helped 
them  to  climb  the  ladder  of  progress.  The  twenty- 
second  edition  is  offered  in  the  confident  conviction  that 
it  will  be  more  useful  to  future  generations  than  the 
previous  editions  have  been  to  those  now  sustaining  the 
heat  and  burden  of  the  day. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION xiii 


CHAPTER  I. 

ENGINEERS  AND  THEIR  DUTIES... 


CHAPTER  II. 
How  ENGINEERS  ARE  MADE 12 

CHAPTER  III. 
INSPECTION  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE 24 

CHAPTER  IV. 
GETTING  READY  FOR  THE  ROAD 33 

CHAPTER  V. 
RUNNING  A  FAST  FREIGHT  TRAIN 42 

CHAPTER  VI. 
GETTING  UP  THE  HILL 59 

CHAPTER  VII. 

FINISHING  THE  TRIP , 71 

ix 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VIU. 

PAGE 

HARD-STEAMING  ENGINES 79 

CHAPTER  IX. 
SHORTNESS  OF  WATER 93 

CHAPTER  X. 
BOILERS  AND  FIRE-BOXES 115 

CHAPTER  XI. 
ACCIDENTS  TO  THE  VALVE-MOTION 125 

CHAPTER  XII. 
ACCIDENTS  TO  CYLINDERS  AND  STEAM-CONNECTIONS 146 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
vO.rp  THE  TRACK— ACCIDENTS  TO  RUNNING-GEAR 156 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
CONNECTING-RODS,  SIDE-RODS  AND  WEDGES 167 

CHAPTER  XV. 
VALVE-MOTION : 185 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
THE  SHIFTING-LINK 218 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
SETTING  THE  VALVES 236 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
THE  WESTINGHOUSE  AIR-BRAKE »...  247 


CONTENTS.  XI 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

FAUB 

TRACTIVE  POWER  AND  TRAIN  RESISTANCE 309 

CHAPTER  XX. 
DRAFT  APPLIANCES 321 

CHAPTER  XXI. 
COMBUSTION 332 

CHAPTER  XXII. 
STEAM-  AND  MOTIVE-POWER 353 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 
SIGHT-FEED  LUBRICATORS 360 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 
EXAMINATION  OF  FIREMEN  FOR  PROMOTION 381 


To  face  p.  xiii. 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


INTRODUCTION. 


DESIGNING    OF  LOCOMOTIVES. 

THE  purpose  of  the  locomotive  engine  is  to  trans- 
form the  energy  of  fuel  by  the  medium  of  steam  into 
the  work  of  pulling  railroad  trains.  The  leading  aim 
of  good  designers  is  to  plan  locomotives  that  will  do 
the  greatest  amount  of  work  with  the  least  expenditure 
of  fuel,  and  will  at  the  same  time  be  safe,  convenient 
to  handle,  strong  and  durable.  The  two  most  impor- 
tant parts  of  the  locomotive  are  the  boiler  and  the  cylin- 
ders. These  are  like  the  stomach  and  the  heart  of  the 
human  machine.  In  the  boiler  the  steam  is  generated, 
and  it  is  used  in  the  cylinders,  transmitting  the  resulting 
power  to  the  driving  wheels.  In  a  well-designed  loco- 
motive, the  boiler  is  made  large  enough  to  supply  all 
the  steam  required  by  the  cylinders  no  matter  how  hard 
the  engine  may  be  worked  or  how  fast  it  may  be  run. 

DESCRIPTION    OF    ORDINARY    LOCOMOTIVE. 

In  most  of  the  engravings  to  be  found  at  this  part  of 
the  book  the  outlines  and  principal  parts  of  an  ordinary 
eight-wheel  locomotive  are  shown.  Plate  A  is  a  side 
elevation  of  the  engine,  and  shows  all  the  outside  parts 
that  can  be  seen  by  a  person  standing  near  the  engine. 
The  cylinder  and  steam  chest  are,  however,  shown  in 

xiii 


To  face  p.  xiv. 


THE 

UNIVERSITY 


IN  TROD  UCTION. 


straight  in  the  front  portion,  but  towards  the  fire-box 
the  diameter  increases  and  the  top  of  the  fire-box  is 
raised  considerably  above  the  boiler.  The  object  of 


the  wagon-top  enlargement  is  to  increase  the  space  for 
holding  steam.  The  dome  in  this  form  of  boiler  is 
nearly  always  placed  on  the  wagon-top.  The  purpose 


Xvill  INTRODUCTION. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  back  end  of  the  cylinder  is 
open  to  the  exhaust,  as  the  escaping  steam  is  free  to 
pass  through  the  port  shown  white  up  to  the  cavity 
under  the  valve  33  and  thence  into  the  opening  of  the 
exhaust-pipe.  When  the  piston  moves  a  little  farther 
towards  the  back  head,  the  valve  will  close  the  back 
port  and  open  the  front  one  to  the  exhaust,  letting  the 
steam  in  the  front  end  of  the  cylinder  escape.  The 
parts  can  be  seen  more  clearly  in  Plate  D.  If  a  draw- 
ing of  the  cylinder  be  made  and  patterns  of  the  piston 
and  valve  be  cut  out  of  thick  paper,  they  can  be  moved 
so  that  a  student  can  obtain  a  clear  idea  of  how  the 
steam  gets  into  and  out  of  the  cylinder. 

ESCAPE    OF    EXHAUST    STEAM. 

Returning  to  Plate  B  :  When  the  steam  passes  into 
the  exhaust  passage  under  the  valve,  it  goes  through  a 
cavity  in  the  saddle  and  emerges  at  81  into  the  exhaust 
pipe  80,  finally  escaping  at  the  nozzle  81  and  passing 
to  the  atmosphere  through  the  stack  25.  As  each  puff 
passes  through  the  stack  it  exerts  a  sort  of  pumping 
action  on  the  smoke-box,  tending  .to  create  a  vacuum. 
This  draws  the  fire-gases  rapidly  through  the  tubes  and 
creates  the  forced  draft  on  the  fire  required  for  rapid 
steam-making.  The  amount  of  vacuum  created  is  con- 
trolled to  some  extent  by  the  diameter  of  the  nozzle, 
If  the  nozzle  is  small  the  steam  escapes  with  increased 
rapidity,  thereby  tending  to  increase  the  pull  on  the  fire. 

DRAFT    ARRANGEMENTS. 

.The  locomotive  shown  has  an  extension  smoke-box 
the  purpose   of  which  is  to  arrest  sparks.     Set  at  an 


IN  TROD  UC  TION.  XI X 

angle  in  front  of  the  tube  openings  there  is  a  plate  82 
called  the  diaphragm.  The  object  of  this  plate  is  to 
regulate  the  draft  through  the  different  rows  of  flues. 
When  the  gases  from  the  fire,  which  tend  to  fly 
upwards,  are  not  controlled  in  their  movement,  there 
is  a  rush  through  the  upper  rows  of  tubes,  and  the 
lower  ones  do  not  do  their  share  of  steam-making. 
The  diaphragm  plate  partly  obstructs  the  upper 
tubes,  and  if  it  is  set  right  makes  the  flow  of 
gases  uniform.  The  petticoat-pipe  performs  similar 
functions  where  it  is  used.  When  the  sparks  pass 
through  the  tubes  they  strike  the  diaphragm  and  are 
projected  forward  in  the  extension  and  lie  undisturbed 
away  from  the  direct  line  of  draft,  which  is  strongest 
below  the  smoke-stack.  A  netting  marked  83  83  83 
helps  to  prevent  the  sparks  from  being  drawn  out  of 
the  smoke-box.  There  are  various  ways  of  arranging 
the  netting,  and  it  is  generally  put  in  to  give  as  much 
area  as  possible. 

NAMES    OF    PARTS. 

The  names  of  nearly  all  the  parts  of  the  locomotive 
maybe  learned  by  finding  the  numbers  in  the  first  three 
plates  and  identifying  them  by  means  of  the  following 
list: 

1.  Cylinders. 

2.  Main  driving-axle. 

3.  Main  rod. 

4.  Side  rod. 

5.  Main  crank-pin. 

6.  Truck-wheels. 


XX  2JV  TR  OD  UC  T2ON. 

7.  Main  driving-wheels. 

8.  Back  driving  or  trailing  wheels. 

9.  Fire-box. 

10.  Expansion  braces. 

11.  Eccentrics. 

12.  Eccentric-rods. 

13.  Link. 

14.  Rocker. 

15.  Link-hanger. 

16.  Horizontal  arm  of  lifting-shaft. 

17.  Lifting,  or  tumbling-shaft. 

1 8.  Upright  arm  of  lifting-shaft. 

19.  Reach-rod. 

20.  I 

21.  v  Reversing-lever. 

22.  ) 

.    23.  Barrel,  or  waist  of  boiler. 

24.  Smoke-box. 

25.  Chimney  or  smoke-stack. 

26.  Water  spaces. 

27.  Grate. 

28.  Furnace-door. 

29.  Ash-pan. 

30.  Front  ash-pan  damper. 

31.  Back  ash-pan  damper. 

32.  Frames. 

33.  Main  valve. 

34.  Valve-stem. 

35.  Head-light. 

36.  Head-light  reflector. 

37.  Head-light  lamp. 

38.  Pilot. 


IN  TROD  UCTWN.  XXJ 


39.  Sand-box. 

40.  Sand-pipes. 

41.  Bell. 

42.  Dome. 

43.  Cab. 

44.  Safety-valve. 

45.  Safety-valve  lever. 

46.  Whistle. 

47.  Whistle-lever. 

48.  Draw-bar. 

49.  Coupling-pin. 

50.  Safety-chains. 

51.  Throttle-lever. 

52.  Injector. 

53.  Injector  steam-pipe. 

54.  Injector  feed-pipe. 

55.  Injector  check-valve. 

56.  Running-board. 

57.  Hand-rail. 

58.  Equalizing-lever. 

59.  Driving-springs. 

60.  Counterbalance  weights. 

61.  Driving-wheel  guard. 

62.  Guide-bar. 

63.  Cross-head. 

64.  Piston. 

65.  Piston-rod. 

66.  Steam-chest. 

67.  Rubbing-plate  for  balanced  valve. 

68.  Steam-chest  relief-valve. 

69.  Hopper  of  extension  smoke-box. 

70.  Smoke-box  door. 


xxiv  INTRODUCTION. 

Plate  D  gives  a  cross-section  of  the  cylinder  and  steam- 
chest.     The  principal  parts  are ; 

1.  Cylinder. 

2.  Front  cylinder-head. 

3.  Back  cylinder-head. 

4.  Front  casing-cover. 

5.  Back  casing-cover. 

6.  Cylinder-gland. 

7.  Cylinder-gland  packing. 

8.  Wood-lagging. 

9.  Casing. 

10.  Steam-chest. 
•  ii.  Steam  chest  cover. 

12.  Steam-chest  packing-gland. 

13.  Gland-ring. 

14.  Steam-chest  casing. 

15.  Side  of  chest-casing. 

1 6.  Slide-valve. 

17.  Valve-yoke. 

1 8.  Steam-chest  joint. 

19.  Oil-pipe  stem. 

PISTONS. 

The  piston  which  works  in  the  cylinder  is  shown  in 
enlarged  form  in  Plate  E.  The  purpose  of  the  piston- 
head  is  to  fill  the  cylinder  bore  tight  enough  to 
prevent  steam  blowing  through  between  the  walls  of 
the  cylinder  and  the  piston-head,  and  yet  be  loose 
enough  to  move  freely  with  as  little  friction  as  possible. 
There  are  various  forms  of  piston-heads,  and  three  kinds 
are  shown  in  Plate  E.  Figure  I  is  what  is  known  as  a 
solid  head  with  two  grooves  round  the  outside  into 


INTRODUCTION. 


XXV 


XXV111 


IN  TROD  UCTION. 


INTRODUCTION.  XXIX 

nected  with  the  running  of  locomotives,  for  a  great  part 
of  the  failures-that  happen  to  modern  locomotives  arise 
from  accidents  to. some  part  of  the  running  gear. 

By  referring  back  to  Plate  B,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
frames,  driving-wheels,  and  truck  with  their  minor  parts 
form  a  carriage  which  carries  the  boiler  and  cylinders. 
When  this  carriage  is  properly  designed  we  have  a 
good  riding  locomotive.  To  bring  this  about  the  whole 
of  the  running  gear,  as  this  part  of  the  engine  is  called, 
must  work  harmoniously  together.  Pressing  upon  the 
upper  half  of  the  different  axle-journals  are  bearings  of 
brass  or  some  other  soft-  metal  on  which  the  weight  of 
the  engine  rests.  The  bearing  is  in  an  axle-box  which 
is  made  strong  enough  to  protect  the  brass  bearing  and 
to  withstand  the  shocks  of  the  hard  service.  The  driv- 
ing axle-boxes  are  held  firm  in  oblong  formations  on 
the  frames  called  jaws,  and  secured  so  that  the  box 
can  rise  and  fall  freely  a  certain  distance.  On  the  top 
of  the  axle-box  and  spanning  the  frame  is  a  casting 
called  a  stirrup  on  which  the  driving-spring  rests.  On 
one  end  hangers  connect  the  spring  to  the  frame,  taking 
their  part  in  holding  up  the  whole  of  the  weight  resting 
on  the  wheels,  and  on  the  other  end  connecting  with 
the  equalizing  beam  which  tends  to  transmit  any  severe 
shock  over  all  the  connecting  wheels. 

In  Plate  G,  class  C  is  the  frame  of  an  eight- wheel 
engine,  class  D  is  the  frame  of  a  mogul  engine,  and 
class  E  is  the  frame  of  a  consolidation  engine. 

The  principal  parts  are  : 

1.  Top  rail  of  frame  and  pedestals. 

2.  Front  rail  of  frame. 

3.  Front  top  of  mogul  and  consolidation  frame. 


XXX 


INTRODUCTION. 


H 


IN  TROD  UCTION'. 


XXXI 


xxxn 


IN  TROD  UCTION. 


IN  TROD  UCTION. 


XXX111 


x  x  x  l  V  IN  TROD  UC  TION. 

4.  Bottom  of  mogul  and  consolidation  frame. 

5.  Middle  brace. 

6.  Back  brace. 

7.  Buffer-block. 

8.  Pedestal-wedge. 

9.  Wedge-bolt. 

10.  Pedestal-shoe. 

Above  9  is  the  pedestal-binder,  the  figure  for  which 
has  been  omitted. 

The  principal  arrangements  shown  in  Plates  H,  I  and 
J  are:  Figure  I  is  spring  and  equalizer  arrangement  of 
an  ordinary  eight-wheel  engine  with  both  springs  on 
top  of  axle-boxes.  Figure  2  shows  a  spring  arrange- 
ment for  an  eight-wheel  locomotive  where  only  one 
spring  can  be  placed  above  the  frames.  Figures  3  to  9 
show  a  variety  of  arrangements  for  springs  and  equal- 
izers that  embrace  nearly  all  requirements. 

The  following  parts  are  shown  : 

1.  Forward  driving-spring. 

2.  Second  driving-spring. 

3.  Third  driving-spring. 

4.  Fourth  driving-spring. 

5.  Fifth  driving-spring. 

*6.  Forward-truck  equalizer. 
7,  8,  9,  10.     Different  kinds  of  equalizers. 

11.  Equalizer-link. 

I  2.   Equalizer-fulcrum. 

13.  Spring-hanger. 

14.  Spring-stirrup. 

15.  Truck  center-pin. 

16.  Transverse  equalizer. 

In  Plate  K  are  shown  the  form  of  construction  of  a 


INTROD  UCTION 


XXXV 


XXX  VI  IN  TR  OD  UC  TION. 

four-wheel  engine-truck  and  of  a  two- wheel  pony-truck. 
The  principal  parts  are  :  . 

1.  Center-pin. 

2.  Swing-bolster. 

3.  Swing-bolster  cross-tie. 

4.  Swing-bolster  hanger. 

5.  Truck- frame. 

6.  Truck-pedestal. 

7.  Truck  binder-brace. 

8.  Equalizer. 

9.  Spring-hanger. 
10.  Axle. 

H.  Wheel. 

12.  Radius  bar. 

13.  Radius-bar  brace. 

14.  Truck-frame. 

15.  Spring-stirrup. 

1 6.  Spring-seat. 

17.  Safety-strap. 


LOCOMOTIVE    ENGINE    RUNNING. 


CHAPTER  I. 
ENGINEERS  AND  THEIR  DUTIES. 

ATTRIBUTES   THAT   MAKE   A   GOOD    ENGINEER. 

THE  locomotive  engine  which  reaches  nearest  per- 
fection, is  one  which  performs  the  greatest  amount  of 
work  at  the  least  cost  for  fuel,  lubricants,  wear  and 
tear  of  machinery  and  of  the  track  traversed  :  the 
nearest  approach  to  perfection  in  an  engineer,  is  the 
man  who  can  work  the  engine  so  as  to  develop  its  best 
capabilities  at  the  least  cost.  Poets  are  said  to  be 
born,  not  made.  The  same  may  be  said  of  engineers. 
One  man  may  have  charge  of  an  engine  for  only  a  few 
months,  and  yet  exhibit  thorough  knowledge  of  his 
business,  displaying  sagacity  resembling  instinct  con- 
cerning the  treatment  necessary  to  secure  the  best  per- 
formance from  his  engine  :  another  man,  who  appears 
equally  intelligent  in  matters  not  pertaining  to  the  lo- 
comotive, never  develops  a  thorough  understanding  of 
the  machine. 


2  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

There  are  few  lines  of  work  where  the  faculty  of 
concentrating  the  mind  to  the  work  on  hand  is  so 
valuable  as  in  that  of  running  a  locomotive.  A  man 
may  be  highly  intelligent  and  be  well  endowed  with 
general  knowledge,  but  on  a  locomotive  he  will  make  a 
failure,  unless  his  whole  attention  while  on  duty,  is  de- 
voted to  the  duties  of  taking  the  locomotive  and  train 
over  the  division  safely  on  time.  The  man,  who  lets 
outside  hobbies  or  interests  take  much  of  his  time 
while  running  a  locomotive,  is  likely  to  get  into  many 
scrapes. 


HOW     ENGINEERING     KNOWLEDGE     AND     SKILL     ARE 
ACQUIRED. 

A  man  who  possesses  the  natural  gifts  necessary  for 
the  making  of  a  good  engineer,  will  advance  more 
rapidly  in  acquiring  mastery  of  the  business  than  does 
one  whom  Nature  intended  for  a  ditcher.  But  there 
is  no  royal  road  to  the  knowledge  requisite  for  making 
a  first-class  engineer.  The  capability  of  handling  an 
engine  can  be  acquired  by  a  few  months'  practice. 
Opening  the  throttle,  and  moving  the  reverse  lever, 
require  but  scanty  skill  ;  there  is  no  great  accomplish- 
ment in  being  able  to  pack  a  gland,  or  tighten  up  a 
loose  nut ;  but  the  magazine  of  practical  knowledge, 
which  enables  an  engineer  to  meet  every  emergency 
with  calmness  and  promptitude,  is  obtained  only  by 
years  of  experience  on  the  footboard,  and  by  assidu- 
ous observation  while  there. 


ENGINEERS   AND    THEIR   DUTIES.  3 

PUBLIC    INTEREST   IN    LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINEERS. 

Ever  since  the  incipiency  of  the  railroad  system,  a 
close  interest  has  been  manifested  by  the  general  pub- 
lic in  the  character  and  capabilities  of  locomotive  engi- 
neers. This  is  natural,  for  no  other  class  of  men  hold 
the  safe-keeping  of  so  much  life  and  property  in  their 
hands. 

IGNORANCE   VERSUS    KNOWLEDGE. 

Two  leading  pioneers  of  railway  progress  in  Europe 
took  diametrically  opposite  views  of  the  intellectual 
qualities  best  calculated  to  make  a  good  engineer. 
George  Stephenson  preferred  intelligent  men,  well 
educated  and  read  up  in  mechanical  and  physical  sci- 
ence ;  Brunei  recommended  illiterate  men  for  taking 
charge  of  engines,  on  the  novel  hypothesis  that,  hav- 
ing nothing  else  in  their  heads,  there  would  be  abun- 
dant room  for  the  acquirement  of  knowledge  respecting 
their  work.  In  every  test  of  skill,  the  intelligent  men 
proved  victors. 

ILLITERATE    ENGINEERS    NOT    WANTED    IN    AMERICA. 

No  demand  for  illiterate  or  ignorant  engineers  has 
ever  arisen  in  America.  Many  men  who  have  spent 
an  important  portion  of  their  lives  on  the  footboard 
have  risen  to  grace  the  highest  ranks  of  the  mechani- 
cal and  social  world.  The  pioneer  engines,  which 
demonstrated  the  successful  working  of  locomotive 
power,  were  run  by  some  of  the  most  accomplished 
mechanical  engineers  in  the  country.  As  an  engine 


4  LOCOMOTIVE    ENGINE  RUNNING. 

adapted  to  the  work  it  has  to  perform,  the  American 
locomotive  is  recognized  to  have  always  kept  ahead  of 
its  compeers  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  No  incon- 
siderable part  of  this  superiority  is  due  to  the  fact, 
that  nearly  all  the  master  mechanics  who  control  the 
designing  of  our  locomotives  have  had  experience  in 
running  them,  and  thereby  understand  exactly  the 
qualities  most  needed  for  the  work  to  be  done. 

GROWING   IMPORTANCE    OF    ENGINEERS*    DUTIES. 

The  safe  and  punctual  operation  of  our  railroads  has 
always  depended  to  a  great  extent,  and  always  will  de- 
pend, upon  the  discriminating  care  and  judgment  of  the 
engineer.  Every  year  sees  the  introduction  of  new 
appliances  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  safety  of 
train  operating,  but  no  automatic  appliances  will  ever 
enable  a  man  to  run  a  locomotive  safely  if  he  is 
deficient  in  judgment,  care,  and  intelligence.  The 
increasing  amount  of  train  mechanism  every  year  im- 
poses new  responsibilities  upon  the  locomotive  engine- 
men.  The  tendency  is  to  require  the  engineer  to 
understand  not  only  everything  about  the  locomotive, 
but  every  detail  of  air-brake  mechanism,  and  also  that 
of  train  signals,  heating  apparatus,  lighting  appliances 
and  every  other  train  attachment.  He  is  gradually 
coming  to  fill  on  a  train  the  position  that  a  chief  engi- 
neer holds  on  a  steamer.  -^. 

INDIVIDUALITY    OF   AMERICAN    ENGINEERS. 

Writing  on  the  fitness  of  various  railroad  employe's 
for  their  duties,  that  eminent  authority,  Ex-Railroad 


ENGINEERS  AND    THEIR   DUTIES.  5 

Commissioner  Charles  F.  Adams  says:  "In  discuss- 
ing and  comparing  the  appliances  used  in  the  prac- 
tical operating  of  railroads  in  different  countries,  there 
is  one  element,  however,  which  can  never  be  left  out 
of  the  account.  The  intelligence,  quickness  of  per- 
ception, and  capacity  for  taking  care  of  themselves, — 
that  combination  of  qualities,  which,  taken  together, 
constitute  individuality,  and  adaptability  to  circum- 
stances,— vary  greatly  among  the  railroad  employe's  of 
different  countries.  The  American  locomotive  engi- 
neer, as  he  is  called,  is  especially  gifted  in  this  way. 
He  can  be  relied  on  to  take  care  of  himself  and  his 
train  under  circumstances  which  in  other  countries 
would  be  thought  to  insure  disaster." 


NECESSITY   FOR   CLASS    IMPROVEMENT. 

While  American  locomotive  engineers  can  confi- 
dently invite  comparison  between  their  own  mechani- 
cal and  intellectual  attainments  and  those  of  their 
compeers  in  any  nation  under  the  sun,  there  still  re- 
mains ample  room  for  improvement.  If  they  are  not 
advancing,  they  are  retrograding.  The  engineer  who 
looks  back  to  companions  of  a  generation  ago,  and 
says  that  we  know  as  much  as  they  did,  but  no  more, 
implies  the  assertion  that  his  class  is  going  backward. 
On  very  few  roads,  and  in  but  rare  instances,  can  this 
grave  charge  be  made,  that  the  engineers  are  falling 
behind  in  the  intellectual  race.  On  the  contrary, 
there  are  signs  all  around  us  of  substantial  work  in  the 
cause  of  intellectual  and  moral  advancement. 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 


THE    SKILL   OF    ENGINEERS     INFLUENCES    OPERATING 
EXPENSES. 

No  class  of  railroad-men  affects  the  expenses  of 
operating  so  directly  as  engineers  do.  The  daily 
wages  paid  to  an  engineer  is  a  trifling  sum  compared 
to  the  amount  he  can  save  or  waste  by  good  or  bad 
management  of  his  engine.  Fuel  wasted,  lubricants 
thrown  away,  supplies  destroyed,  and  machinery 
abused,  leading  to  extravagant  running  repairs,  make 
up  a  long  bill  by  the  end  of  each  month,  where  en- 
ginemen  are  incompetent.  Every  man  with  any  spark 
of  manliness  in  his  breast  will  strive  to  become  master 
of  his  work  ;  and,  stirred  by  this  ambition,  he  will 
avoid  wasting  the  material  of  his  employer  just  as 
zealously  as  if  the  stores  were  his  own  property ;  and 
only  such  men  deserve  a  position  on  the  footboard. 

The  day  has  passed  away  when  an  engineer  was 
regarded  as  perfectly  competent  so  long  as  he  could 
take  his  train  over  the  road  on  time.  Nowadays  a 
man  must  get  the  train  along  on  schedule  time  to  be 
tolerated  at  all,  and  he  is  not  considered  a  first-class 
engineer  unless  he  possesses  the  knowledge  which  ena- 
bles him  to  take  the  greatest  amount  of  work  out  of  the 
engine  with  the  least  possible  expense.  To  accom- 
plish such  results,  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  all  de- 
tails of  the  engine  is  essential,  so  that  the  entire  ma- 
chine may  be  operated  as  a  harmonious  unit,  without 
jar  or  pound  ;  the  various  methods  of  economizing  heat 
must  be  intimately  understood,  and  the  laws  which 


ENGINEERS  AND    THEIR   DUTIES,  / 

govern  combustion  should  be  well  known  so  far  as  they 
apply  to  the  management  of  the  nre. 

METHODS    OF   SELF-IMPROVEMENT. 

To  obtain  this  knowledge,  which  gives  power,  and 
directly  increases  a  man's  intrinsic  value,  young  en- 
gineers and  aspiring  firemen  must  devote  a  portion  of 
their  leisure  time  to  the  form  of  self-improvement  relat- 
ing to  the  locomotive.  Socrates,  a  sagacious  old  Greek 
philosopher,  believed  that  the  easiest  way  to  obtain 
knowledge  was  by  persistently  asking  questions. 
Young  engineers  can  turn  this  system  to  good  account. 
Never  feel  ashamed  to  ask  for  information  where  it  is 
needed,  and  do  not  imagine  that  a  man  has  reached  the 
limit  of  mechanical  knowledge  when  he  knows  how  to 
open  and  shut  the  throttle-valve.  The  more  a  man 
progresses  in  studying  out  the  philosophy  of  the  loco- 
motive and  its  economical  operation  the  more  he  gets 
convinced  of  his  own  limited  knowledge.  A  young 
engineer  who  seeks  for  knowledge  by  questioning  his 
elders  must  not  feel  discouraged  at  a  rebuff.  Men 
who  refuse  to  answer  civilly  questions  asked  by  juniors 
searching  for  information  are  generally  in  the  dark 
themselves,  and  attempt  by  rudeness  to  conceal  their 
own  ignorance. 

OBSERVING   SHOP   OPERATIONS. 

The  system  in  vogue  in  most  of  our  States,  especially 
in  the  West,  of  taking  on  men  for  firemen  who  have 
received  no  previous  mechanical  training  leaves  a  wide 
field  open  for  engineering  instruction.  Such  men  can- 


8  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

not  spend  too  much  time  watching  the  operations  go- 
ing on  in  repair-shops;  every  detail  of  round-house 
work  should  be  closely  observed ;  the  various  parts  of 
the  great  machine  they  are  learning  to  manage  should 
be  studied  in  detail.  No  operation  of  repairs  is  too 
trifling  to  receive  strict  attention.  Where  the  machin- 
ists are  examining  piston-packing,  facing  valves,  reduc- 
ing rod-brasses,  or  lining  down  wedges,  the  ambitious 
novice  will,  by  close  watching  of  the  work,  obtain 
knowledge  of  the  most  useful  kind.  Looking  on  will 
not  teach  him  how  to  do  the  work,  but  interesting 
himself  in  the  procedure  is  a  long  step  in  the  direction 
of  learning.  Repairing  of  pumps  and  injectors  is  in- 
teresting work,  full  of  instructive  points  which  may 
prove  invaluable  on  the  road.  The  rough  work  per- 
formed by  the  men  who  change  truck-wheels,  put 
new  brasses  in  oil-boxes,  and  replace  broken  springs 
is  worthy  of  close  attention ;  for  it  is  just  such  work 
that  enginemen  are  most  likely  to  be  called  upon  to 
perform  on  the  road  in  cases  of  accident.  To  obtain 
a  thorough  insight  into  the  working  of  the  locomo- 
tive, no  detail  of  its  construction  is  too  trifling  for 
attention.  The  unison  of  the  aggregate  machine  de- 
pends upon  the  harmonious  adjustment  of  the  various 
parts;  and,  unless  a  man  understands  the  connection 
of  the  details,  he  is  never  likely  to  become  skillful  in 
detecting  derangements. 

WHERE    IGNORANCE    WAS    RUIN. 

I  knew  a  case  where  the  neglect  to  learn  how  minor 
work  about  the  engine  was  done  proved  fatal  to  the 


ENGINEERS  AND    THEIR  DUTIES.  $ 

prospects  of  a  young  engineer.  A  new  engine-truck 
box  had  been  adopted  shortly  before  he  went  running; 
and,  although  he  had  often  seen  the  cellar  taken  down 
by  the  round-house  men  when  they  were  packing  the 
trucks,  he  never  paid  close  attention  to  how  it  was 
done.  As  the  new  plan  was  a  radical  change  from  the 
old  practice,  taking  down  the  new  cellar  was  a  little 
puzzling  at  first  to  a  man  .who  did  nc&  know  how  to  do 
it.  One  day  this  young  engineer  took  out  an  engine 
with  the  new  kind  of  truck,  and  a  journal  got  running 
hot.  He  crept  under  the  truck  among  snow  and 
slush  to  take  the  cellar  down  for  packing  ;  but  he 
struggled  half  an  hour  over  it,  and  could  not  get  the 
thing  down.  Then  the  conductor  came  along,  to  see 
what  was  the  matter;  and,  being  posted  on  such  work, 
he  perceived  that  the  young  engineer  did  not  know 
how  to  take  the  cellar  out  of  the  box.  The  conductor 
helped  the  engineer  to  do  a  job  he  should  have  needed 
no  assistance  with.  The  story  was  presently  carried 
to  headquarters  with  additions,  and  was  the  means  of 
returning  the  young  engineer  to  the  left-hand  side. 

PREJUDICE   AGAINST    STUDYING   BOOKS. 

There  is  a  silly  prejudice  in  some  quarters  against 
engineers  applying  to  books  for  information  respecting 
their  engines.  Engineers  are  numerous  who  boast 
noisily  that  all  their  knowledge  is  derived  from  actual 
experience,  and  they  despise  theorists  who  study 
books,  drawings,  or  models  in  acquiring  particulars 
concerning  the  construction  or  operation  of  the  loco- 
motive parts.  Such  men  have  nothing  to  boast  of. 


IO  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

They  never  learn  much,  because  ignorant  egotism 
keeps  them  blind.  They  keep  the  ranks  of  the  mere 
stopper  and  starter  well  filled. 

THE    KIND    OF   KNOWLEDGE  GAINED   FROM   BOOKS. 

The  books  on  mechanical  practice  which  these  ultra- 
practical  men  despise  contain  in  condensed  form  the 
experience  and  discoveries  that  have  been  gleaned 
from  the  hardest  workers  and  thinkers  of  past  ages. 
The  product  of  long  years  of  toilful  experiment,  where 
intense  thought  has  furrowed  expansive  brows,  and 
weary  watching  has  whitened  raven  locks,  is  often 
recorded  on  a  few  pages.  A  mechanical  fact  which  an 
experimenter  has  spent  years  in  discovering  and  eluci- 
dating can  be  learned  and  tested  by  a  student  in  as 
many  hours.  The  man  who  despises  book-knowledge 
relating  to  any  calling  or  profession  rejects  the  wis- 
dom begotten  of  former  recorded  labor. 

The  study  of  good  books  relating  to  the  locomotive 
will  teach  the  young  engineer  many  things  about  his 
engine  that  can  be  verified  by  practice.  If  anything 
in  a  book  induces  an  engineer  to  think  for  himself, 
and  sets  him  to  observing  and  investigating,  it  is  cer- 
tain to  do  him  good. 

MODELS   AND    CROSS-SECTIONS. 

A  highly  instructive  and  interesting  means  of  self- 
instruction  that  can  be  reached  by  most  ambitious  en- 
gineers and  firemen  is  the  study  of  models  and  cut 
cross-sections  of  locomotive  mechanism.  Many  divi- 
sion brotherhood  rooms  used  by  engineers  and  fire- 


ENGINEERS  AND    THEIR   DUTIES.  II 

men  have  models  and  cross-sections  of  valve  gear, 
lubricators,  brake  mechanism,  etc.  These  appliances 
offer  invaluable  aid  to  men  anxious  to  learn  about  the 
working  of  the  parts  they  represent,  and  constant  use 
ought  to  be  made  of  them. 

Valve  gears  are  a  favorite  study  with  young  engi- 
neers, and  information  about  their  arrangement  and 
action  can  be  studied  to  the  greatest  advantage  by  the 
aid  of  a  model.  The  chapters  on  valve  motion,  far- 
ther on  in  this  book,  are  made  as  plain  as  simple 
words  and  clear  wood-cuts  can  make  them ;  but  the 
subjects  treated  will  be  much  easier  understood  if 
they  are  studied  with  a  model  at  hand  for  reference. 
Two  or  three  studious  engineers  or  firemen  can  give 
great  help  to  each  other  by  forming  a  class  to  study  a 
model  together  by  the  aid  of  the  chapters  on  valve 
gear.  When  that  part  is  mastered,  they  will  be  likely 
to  study  the  Westinghouse  air-brake  and  other  parts 
in  the  same  way.  The  union  of  two  or  three  to- 
gether for  the  purpose  of  mutual  study  yields  a  form 
of  strength  that  is  certain  to  have  a  sustaining  influ- 
ence throughout  the  life  of  those  participating. 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

Of 


CHAPTER    II. 
HOW  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEERS  ARE  MADE. 

RELIABLE    MEN   NEEDED    TO    RUN    LOCOMOTIVES. 

Locomotive  engine  running  is  one  of  the  most 
modern  of  trades,  consequently  its  acquirement  has 
not  been  controlled  by  the  exact  methods  associated 
with  ancient  guild  apprenticeships.  Nevertheless, 
graduates  to  this  business  do  not  take  charge  of  the 
iron  horse  without  the  full  meed  of  experience  and 
skill  requisite  for  performing  their  duties  successfully. 
The  man  who  runs  a  locomotive  engine  on  our  crowded 
railroads  has  so  much  valuable  property,  directly  and 
indirectly,  under  his  care,  so  much  of  life  and  limb 
depending  upon  his  skill  and  ability,  that  railroad 
companies  are  not  likely  to  intrust  the  position  to 
those  with  a  suspicion  of  incompetency  resting  upon 
them. 

DIFFICULTIES  OF  RUNNING  LOCOMOTIVES  AT  NIGHT, 
AND    DURING   BAD    WEATHER. 

In  the  matter  of  speed  alone  there  is  much  to  learn 
before  a  man  can  safely  run  a  locomotive.  During 
daylight  a  novice  will  generally  be  half  out  in  estima- 
ting speed;  and  his  judgment  is  merely  wild  guess- 

12 


HOW  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEERS  ARE  MADE.        13 

work,  regulated  more  by  the  condition  of  the  track 
than  by  the  velocity  his  train  is  reaching.  On  a 
smooth  piece  of  track  he  thinks  he  is  making  twenty- 
five  miles  an  hour,  when  forty  miles  is  about  the  cor- 
rect speed:  then  he  strikes  a  rough  portion  of  the 
road-bed,  and  concludes  he  is  tearing  along  at  thirty 
miles  an  hour,  when  he  is  scarcely  reaching  twenty 
miles;  since  the  first  lurchy  spot  made  him  shut  off 
twenty  per  cent  of  the  steam.  At  night  the  case  is 
much  worse,  especially  when  the  weather  proves  un- 
favorable. On  a  wild,  stormy  night  the  accumulated 
experience  of  years  on  the  footboard,  which  trains  a 
man  to  judge  of  speed  by  sound  of  the  revolving 
wheels,  and  to  locate  his  position  between  stations 
from  a  tree,  a  shrub,  a  protruding  bank,  or  any  other 
trifling  object  that  would  pass  unnoticed  by  a  less  cul- 
tivated eye,  is  all  needed  to  aid  an  engineer  in  work- 
ing along  with  unvaried  speed  without  jolt  or  tumult. 
On  such  a  night  a  man  strange  to  the  business  can- 
not work  a  locomotive  and  exercise  proper  control 
over  its  movements.  He  may  place  the  reverse-lever 
latch  in  a  certain  notch,  and  keep  the  steam  on;  he 
can  regulate  the  injector  after  a  fashion,  and  watch 
that  the  water  shall  not  get  too  low  in  the  boiler ;  he 
can  shut  off  in  good  season  while  approaching  stations, 
and  blunder  into  each  depot  by  repeatedly  applying 
steam ;  but  he  exerts  no  control  over  the  train,  knows 
nothing  of  what  the  engine  is  doing,  and  is  constantly 
liable  to  break  the  train  in  two.  A  diagram  of  his 
speed  would  fluctuate  as  irregularly  as  the  profile  lines 
of  a  bluffy  country.  This  is  where  a  machinist's  skill 


14  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

does  not  apply  to  locomotive-running  until  it  is  sup- 
plemented by  an  intimate  knowledge  of  speed,  of 
facility  at  handling  a  train  and  keeping  the  couplings 
intact,  and  of  insight  into  the  best  methods  of  econ- 
omizing steam. 

These  are  essentials  which  every  man  should  pos- 
sess before  he  is  put  in  charge  of  a  locomotive  on  the 
road.  The  great  fund  of  practical  knowledge  which 
stamps  the  first-class  engineer  is  amassed  by  general 
labor  during  years  of  vigilant  observation  on  the  foot- 
board, amidst  many  changes  of  fair  and  foul  weather. 

As  passing  through  the  occupation  of  fireman  was 
the  only  way  men  could  obtain  practical  knowledge  of 
engine-running  before  taking  charge,  railroad  officials 
all  over  the  world  gradually  fell  into  the  way  of  re- 
gardinp-  that  as  the  proper  channel  for  men  to  traverse 
before  reaching  the  right-hand  side  of  *he  locomotive. 

KIND    OF    MEN    TO    BE    CHOSEN   AS    FIREMEN. 

As  the  pay  for  firemen  rules  moderately  good,  even 
when  compared  with  other  skilled  labor;  and  as  the 
higher  position  of  engineer  looms  like  a  beacon  not 
far  ahead, — there  is  always  a  liberal  choice  of  good 
men  to  begin  work  as  firemen.  Most  railroad  com- 
panies recognize  the  importance  of  exercising  judg- 
ment and  discretion  in  selecting  the  men  who  are  to 
run  as  their  future  engineers.  Sobriety,  industry,  and 
intelligence  are  essential  attributes  in  a  fireman  who 
is  going  to  prove  a  success  in  his  calling.  Lack  in 
any  one  of  these  qualities  will  quickly  prove  fatal  to  a 
fireman's  prospects  of  advancement.  Sobriety  is  of 


HOW  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINEERS  ARE  MADE.        1 5 

the  first  importance,  because  a  man  who  is  not  strictly 
temperate  should  not  be  tolerated  for  a  moment 
about  a  locomotive,  since  he  is  a  source  of  danger  to 
himself  and  others;  industry  is  needed  to  lighten  the 
burden  of  a  fireman's  duties,  for  oftentimes  they  are 
arduous  beyond  the  conception  of  strangers;  and 
wanting  in  the  third  quality,  intelligence,  a  man  can 
never  be  a  good  fireman  in  the  wide  sense  of  the 
word,  since  one  deficient  in  mental  tact  never  rises 
higher  than  a  human  machine.  An  intelligent  fire- 
man may  be  ignorant  of  the  scientific  nomenclature 
relating  to  combustion,  but  he  will  be  perfectly  famil- 
iar with  all  the  practical  phenomena  connected  with 
the  economical  generation  of  steam.  Such  a  man 
does  not  imagine  that  he  has  reached  the  limit  of 
locomotive  knowledge  when  he  understands  how  to 
keep  an  engine  hot  and  can  shine  up  the  jacket. 
Every  trip  reveals  something  new  about  his  art,  every 
day  opens  his  vision  to  strange  facts  about  the  won- 
derful -machine  he  is  learning  to  manage.  And  so, 
week  by  week,  he  goes  on  his  way,  attending  cheer- 
fully to  his  duties,  and  accumulating  the  knowledge 
that  will  eventually  make  him  a  first-class  locomotive 
engineer. 

FIRST   TRIPS. 

A  youth  entirely  unacquainted  with  all  the  opera- 
tions which  a  fireman  is  called  upon  to  perform  finds 
the  first  trip  a  terribly  arduous  ordeal,  even  with  some 
previous  experience  of  railroad  work.  When  his  first 
trip  introduces  him  to  the  locomotive  and  to  railroad 


1 6  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

life  at  the  same  time,  the  day  is  certain  to  be  a  record 
of  personal  tribulation.  To  ride  for  ten  or  twelve 
hours  on  an  engine  for  the  first  time,  standing  on 
one's  feet,  and  subject  to  the  shaking  motion,  is  in- 
tensely tiresome,  even  if  a  man  has  no  work  to  do. 
But  when  he  has  to  ride  during  that  period,  and  in 
addition  has  to  shovel  six  or  eight  tons  of  coal,  most 
of  which  has  to  be  handled  twice,  the  job  proves  no 
sinecure.  Then,  the  posture  of  his  body  while  doing 
work  is  new;  he  is  expected  and  required  to  pitch 
coal  upon  certain  exact  spots,  through  a  small  door, 
while  the  engine  is  swinging  about  so  that  he  can 
scarcely  keep  his  feet;  his  hands  get  blistered  with 
the  shovel,  and  his  eyes  grow  dazzled  from  the  re- 
splendent light  of  the  fire.  Then  come  the  additional 
side  duties  of  taking  water,  shaking  the  grates,  clean- 
ing the  ash-pan,  or  even  the  fire,  where  bad  coal  is 
used,  filling  oil-cans,  and  trimming  lamps,  to  say 
nothing  of  polishing  and  keeping  things  clean  and 
tidy.  By  the  time  all  these  duties  are  attended  to 
the  young  fireman  does  not  find  a  great  deal  of  leisure 
to  admire  the  passing  scenery. 

POPULAR    MISCONCEPTION   OF   A   FIREMAN'S    DUTIES. 

A  great  many  idle  young  fellows,  ignorant  of  rail- 
road affairs,  imagine  that  a  fireman's  principal  work 
consists  in  ringing  the  bell,  and  showing  himself  off 
conspicuously  in  coming  into  stations.  They  look 
upon  the  business  as  being  of  the  heroic  kind,  and 
strive  to  get  taken  on  as  firemen.  If  a  youth  of  this 
kind  happens  to  succeed,  and  starts  out  on  a  run  of 


HOW  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINEERS  ARE   MADE.        \J 

one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  with  every  car  a  heavy 
engine  will  pull  stuck  on  behind,  his  visions  of  having 
reached  something  easy  are  quickly  dispelled. 

Like  nearly  every  other  occupation,  that  of  fireman 
has  its  drawbacks  to  counterbalance  its  advantages; 
and  the  drawbacks  weigh  heaviest  during  the  first  ten 
days.  The  man  who  enters  the  business  under  the 
delusion  that  he  can  lead  a  life  of  semi-idleness  must 
change  his  views,  or  he  will  prove  a  failure.  The  man 
who  becomes  a  fireman  with  a  spirit  ready  and  willing 
to  overcome  all  difficulties,  with  a  cheerful  determina- 
tion to  do  his  duty  with  all  his  might,  is  certain  of 
success;  and  to  such  a  man  the  work  becomes  easy 
after  a  few  weeks'  practice. 

LEARNING   FIREMEN'S   DUTIES. 

Practice,  combined  with  intelligent  observation, 
gradually  makes  a  man  familiar  with  the  best  styles 
of  firing,  as  adapted  to  all  varieties  of  engines;  and 
he  gets  to  understand  intimately  all  the  qualities  of 
coal  to  be  met  with,  good,  bad,  and  indifferent.  As 
his  experience  widens,  his  fire  management  is  regu- 
lated to  accord  with  the  kind  of  coal  on  hand,  the 
steaming  properties  of  the  engine,  the  weight  of  the 
^rain,  the  character  of  the  road  and  of  the  weather. 
Firing,  with  all  the  details  connected  with  it,  is  the 
central  figure  of  his  work,  the  object  of  pre-eminent 
concern ;  but  a  good  man  does  not  allow  this  to  pre- 
vent him  from  attending  regularly  and  exactly  to  his 
remaining  routine  duties. 


1 8  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 


A    GOOD    FIREMAN    MAKES   A    GOOD    ENGINEER. 

There  is  a  familiar  adage  among  railroad  men,  that 
a  good  fireman  is  certain  to  make  a  good  engineer; 
and  it  rarely  fails  to  come  out  true.  To  hear  some 
firemen  of  three  months'  standing  talk,  a  stranger 
might  conclude  that  they  knew  more  about  engine- 
running  than  the  oldest  engineer  in  the  district. 
These  are  not  the  good  firemen.  Good  firemen  learn 
their  own  business  with  the  humility  born  of  earnest- 
ness, and  they  do  not  undertake  to  instruct  others  in 
matters  beyond  their  own  knowledge.  It  is  the  man 
who  goes  into  the  heart  of  a  subject,  who  understands 
how  much  there  is  to  learn,  and  is  therefore  modest 
in  parading  his  own  acquirements,  that  succeeds. 

LEARNING   AN    ENGINEER'S    DUTIES. 

When  a  fireman  has  mastered  his  duties  sufficiently 
to  keep  them  going  smoothly,  he  begins  to  find  time 
for  watching  the  operations  of  the  engineer.  He 
notes  how  the  boiler  is  fed ;  and,  upon  his  knowledge 
of  the  engineer's  practice  in  this  respect,  much  of  his 
firing  is  regulated.  The  different  methods  of  using 
the  steam  by  engineers,  so  that  trains  can  be  taken 
over  the  road  with  the  least  expenditure  of  coal,  are 
engraven  upon  the  memory  of  the  observant  fireman. 
Many  of  the  acquirements  which  commend  a  good 
fireman  for  promotion  are  learned  by  imperceptible 
degrees, — the  knowledge  of  speed,  for  instance,  which 
enables  a  man  to  tell  how  fast  a  train  is  running  on 
all  kinds  of  track,  and  under  all  conditions  of  weather. 


HO W  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEERS  ARE   MADE.        1 9 

There  would  be  no  use  in  one  strange  to  train  service 
going  out  for  a  few  runs  to  learn  speed.  He  might 
learn  nearly  all  other  requisites  of  engine-running 
before  he  was  able  to  judge  within  ten  miles  of  how 
fast  the  train  was  going  under  adverse  circumstances. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  sound  which  indicates 
how  an  engine  is  working.  It  requires  an  experienced 
ear  to  detect  the  false  note  which  indicates  that 
something  is  wrong.  Amidst  the  mingled  sounds 
produced  by  an  engine  and  train  hammering  over  a 
steel  track,  the  novice  hears  nothing  but  a  medley  of 
confused  noises,  strange  and  meaningless  as  are  the 
harmonies  of  an  opera  to  an  untutored  savage.  But 
the  trained  ear  of  an  engineer  can  distinguish  a  strange 
sound  amidst  all  the  tumult  of  thundering  exhaust, 
screaming  steam,  and  clashing  steel,  as  readily  as  an 
accomplished  musician  can  detect  a  false  note  in  a 
many-voiced  chorus.  Upon  this  ability  to  detect 
growing  defects  which  pave  the  way  to  disaster 
depends  much  of  an  engineer's  chances  of  success  in 
his  calling.  This  kind  of  skill  is  not  obtained  by  a 
few  weeks'  industry:  it  is  the  gradual  accumulation 
of  months  and  years  of  patient  labor. 

LEARNING  TO  KEEP  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  IN  RUNNING 

ORDER. 

As  his  acquaintance  with  the  handling  and  ordinary 
working  of  the  locomotive  extends,  the  aspiring  fire- 
man learns  all  about  the  packing  of  glands,  and  how 
they  should  be  kept  so  as  to  run  to  the  best  advan- 


2O  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

tage :  he  displays  an  active  interest  in  everything 
relating  to  lubrication,  from  the  packing  of  a  box- 
cellar  to  the  regulating  of  a  rod-cup.  When  the 
engineer  is  round  keying  up  rods,  or  doing  other 
necessary  work  about  his  engine,  the  ambitious  fire- 
man should  give  a  helping  hand,  and  thereby  become 
familiar  with  the  operations  that  are  likely  to  be  of 
service  when  he  is  required  to  draw  upon  his  own 
resources  for  doing  the  same  work. 

Of  late  years  the  art  of  locomotive  construction  has 
been  so  highly  developed,  the  amount  of  strain  and 
shocks  to  which  each  working  part  is  subjected  has 
been  so  well  calculated  and  provided  against,  that 
breakages  are  really  very  rare  on  roads  where  the 
motive  power  is  kept  in  first-class  condition.  Conse- 
quently, firemen  gain  comparatively  small  insight,  on 
the  road,  into  the  best  and  quickest  methods  of  dis- 
connecting engines,  or  of  fixing  up  mishaps  promptly, 
so  that  a  train  may  not  be  delayed  longer  than  is 
absolutely  necessary.  A  fireman  must  get  this  infor- 
mation beyond  the  daily  routine  of  his  experience. 
He  must  search  for  the  knowledge  among  those 
competent  to  give  it.  Persistent  inquiry  among  the 
men  posted  on  these  matters ;  observation  amidst 
machine-shop  and  round-house  operations;  and  care- 
ful study  of  locomotive  construction,  so  that  a  clear 
insight  into  the  physiology  of  the  machine  may  be 
obtained, — will  prepare  one  to  meet  accidents,  armed 
with  the  knowledge  which  vanquishes  all  difficulties. 
Reflecting  on  probable  or  possible  mishaps,  and  calcu- 
lating what  is  best  to  be  done  under  all  contingencies 


HOW  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINEERS   ARE   MADE.        2! 

that  can  be  conceived,  prepare  a  man  to  act  promptly 
when  a  break-down  occurs. 


METHODS    OF    PROMOTION    ON   OUR    LEADING    ROADS. 

In  the  method  of  promotion  of  firemen  consider- 
able diversity  of  practice  is  followed  by  the  different 
railroads.  On  certain  roads,  with  well-established 
business,  and  little  fluctuation  of  traffic,  firemen  begin 
work  on  switch-engines,  and  are  promoted  by  senior- 
ity, or  by  selection  through  the  various  grades  of 
freight  trains,  thence  to  passenger  service,  from 
whence  they  emerge  as  incipient  engineers.  A  more 
common  practice,  and  one  almost  invariably  followed 
in  the  West,  is  for  firemen  to  begin  as  extra  men,  in 
place  of  firemen  who  are  sick  or  lying  off.  From 
firing  extra,  they  get  advanced,  if  found  competent  and 
deserving,  to  regular  engines.  Then,  step  by  step, 
they  go  ahead  to  the  best  paying  'runs,  till  their  turn 
for  being  "  set  up  "  comes  round.  Passenger  engines 
are  not  fired  by  any  but  experienced  men,  but  the 
oldest  firemen  do  not  always  claim  passenger-runs. 
For  learning  the  business  of  engine-running  freight 
service  is  considered  most  valuable;  and  many  ambi- 
tious firemen  prefer  the  hard  work  of  a  freight  engine 
on  this  account. 


NATURE    OF    EXAMINATION    TO    BE    PASSED. 

When   a  fireman  has  obtained  the  experience  that 
recommends  him  for  promotion,  on  nearly  all  well- 


22  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

regulated  roads  he  is  subjected  to  some  form  of  exami- 
nation before  being  put  in  charge  of  an  engine.  In 
some  cases  this  examination  is  quite  thorough.  The 
tendency  to  require  firemen  to  pass  such  an  ordeal  is 
extending,  and  its  beneficial  effect  upon  the  men  is 
unquestioned.  The  usual  form  of  examination  is,  for 
officers  connected  with  the  locomotive  department  to 
question  the  candidate  for  promotion  on  matters  re- 
lating to  the  management  of  the  locomotive,  and  how 
he  would  proceed  in  the  event  of  certain  mishaps 
befalling  the  engine.  Parties  belonging  to  the  traffic 
department  propound  questions  relating  to  road-rules, 
train-rights,  understanding  of  time-card,  and  so  on. 

A  common  practice  among  progressive  railroad 
companies  is  to  subject  their  firemen  to  an  examina- 
tion, with  questions  and  answers  similar  to  those  given 
in  the  form  of  examination  adopted  by  the  Travel- 
ing Engineers'  Association  and  published  in  another 
chapter  of  this  book.  The  questions  and  answers 
are  given  to  show  to  the  candidate  for  promotion 
the  scope  of  knowledge  he  is  expected  to  possess. 
The  prevailing  practice  in  carrying  on  the  examina- 
tion is  to  vary  the  questions  enough  to  find  out  that 
the  fireman  has  not  merely  committed  the  words  of 
the  answer  to  memory  without  understanding  the 
subject.  A  careful  study  of  this  book  will  give  a 
candidate  for  promotion  good  sound  knowledge  of 
all  the  questions  that  will  be  asked,  and  will  enable 
him  to  prove  to  the  examiners  that  his  acquaintance 
with  the  working  of  the  locomotive  is  sufficient  for 
dealing  with  all  difficulties  likely  to  arise. 


HOW  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEERS  ARE   MADE.        2$ 

A  good  practice  for  firemen  who  read  this  book  is 
to  note  what  is  recommended  to  be  done  in  case  of 
accidents  or  emergencies  and  study  how  the  recom- 
mendations could  best  be  carried  out  on  the  locomo- 
tives they  are  acquainted  with.  Trv  to  give  a  practical 
application  of  every  recommendation. 


CHAPTER  III- 
INSPECTION  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE. 

LOCOMOTIVE    INSPECTORS. 

ON  well-managed  railroads,  where  the  system  of 
pooling  locomotives  prevails,  there  is  a  locomotive 
inspector  employed,  whose  duty  it  is  to  thoroughly 
examine  every  available  point  about  every  engine  that 
arrives  at  his  station,  and  find  out  what  repairs  are 
needed,  and  to  detect  the  incipient  defects  which  lead 
to  disaster  on  the  road.  Some  roads  that  do  not 
practice  pooling  have  an  inspector  who  examines  every 
engine.  These  inspectors  are  not  employed  to  ex- 
empt engineers  from  looking  over  their  engines,  but 
merely  to  supplement  their  care.  In  some  cases  en- 
gineers are  brought  sharply  to  task  if  they  overlook 
any  important  defect  which  is  discovered  by  the  in- 
spector. 

GOOD   ENGINEERS    INSPECT   THEIR   OWN   ENGINES. 

The  engineer  who  has  a  liking  for  his  work,  and 
takes  pride  in  making  his  engine  perform  its  part  so 
as  to  show  the  highest  possible  record,  does  not  re- 
quire the  fear  of  an  inspector  behind  him  as  an  incen-/ 


INSPECTION  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE.  2$ 

tive  to  properly  examine  his  engine,  and  keep  it  in 
the  best  running-order.  He  recognizes  the  fact  that 
upon  systematic  and  regular  inspection  of  the  engine 
while  at  rest  depend  in  a  great  measure  his  success 
as  a  runner  and  his  exemption  from  trouble. 

WHAT    COMES    OF   NEGLECTING    SYSTEMATIC 
INSPECTION    OF   LOCOMOTIVES. 

The  man  who  habitually  neglects  the  business  of 
inspecting  his  engine,  and  leaves  to  luck  his  chances 
of  getting  over  the  road  safely,  soon  finds  that  the 
worst  kind  of  luck  is  always  overtaking  him  on  the 
road.  A  careful  man  may  have  a  run  of  bad  luck 
occasionally,  but  the  careless  man  meets  with  nothing 
else.  Among  a  great  many  men  who  have  failed  as 
runners,  I  can  recall  numerous  cases  where  carelessness 
about  the  engine  was  the  only  and  direct  cause  which 
led  them  to  failure.  One  of  the  most  successful  en- 
gineers that  ever  pulled  a  throttle  on  the  Erie  Rail- 
road was  asked  by  a  young  runner  to  what  cause  he 
attributed  his  extraordinary  good  fortune.  His  reply 
was,  "  I  never  went  out  without  giving  my  engine  a 
good  inspection."  This  man  had  been  running  nearly 
half  a  century,  and  never  needed  to  have  his  engine 
hauled  to  the  round-house. 

CONFIDENCE   ON   THE   ROAD    DERIVED    FROM 
INSPECTION. 

When  a  locomotive  is  thundering  over  a  road  ahead 
of  a  heavy  train  in  which  may  be  hundreds  of  human 
beings,  the  engineer  ought  to  understand  that  the 


26  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

safety  of  this  freight  of  lives  depends  to  a  great  extent 
upon  his  care  and  foresight.  As  the  train  rushes 
through  darkened  cuttings,  spans  giddy  bridges,  or 
rounds  curves  edged  by  deep  chasms,  no  one  can 
understand  better  than  the  engineer  the  importance  of 
having  every  nut  and  bolt  about  the  engine  in  good 
condition,  and  in  its  proper  place.  The  consciousness 
that  everything  is  right,  the  knowledge  that  a  thor- 
ough inspection  at  the  beginning  of  the  journey 
proved  the  locomotive  to  be  in  perfect  condition,  give 
a  wonderful  degree  of  comfort  and  confidence  to  the 
engineer  as  he  urges  his  train  along  at  the  best  speed 
of  the  engine. 

INSPECTION    ON    THE    PIT. 

Between  the  time  of  an  engine's  return  from  one 
trip  and  its  preparation  for  another  a  thorough  ex- 
amination of  all  the  machinery  and  running-gear 
should  be  made  while  the  engine  is  standing  over  a 
pit.  Monkey-wrench  in  one  hand,  and  a  torch  in  the 
other  if  necessary,  the  engineer  ought  to  enter  the 
pit  at  the  head  of  the  engine,  and  make  the  inspection 
systematically.  The  engine-truck,  with  all  its  connec- 
tions, comes  in  for  the  first  scrutiny.  Now  is  the  time 
to  guard  against  the  loss  of  bolts  or  screws,  which 
leads  to  the  loss  of  oil-box  cellars  on  the  road.  This 
is  also  the  proper  time  to  examine  the  condition  of 
the  oil-box  packing.  The  engineers  of  my  acquaint- 
ance who  are  most  successful  in  getting  trains  over 
the  road  on  time  attend  to  the  packing  of  the  truck- 
boxes  themselves.  Nothing  is  more  annoying  on  the 


INSPECTION  OF   THE  LOCOMOTIVE.  2? 

road  than  hot  boxes.  They  are  a  fruitful  source  of 
delay  and  danger,  and  nothing  is  better  calculated  to 
prevent  such  troubles  than  good  packing  and  clear  oil- 
holes.  The  shopmen  who  are  kept  for  attending  to 
this  work  are  sometimes  careless.  They  can  hardly 
be  expected  to  feel  so  strongly  impressed  with  the 
importance  of  having  boxes  well  packed  as  the  en- 
gineer, who  will  be  blamed  for  any  delay.  He  should, 
therefore,  know  from  personal  inspection  that  the 
work  is  properly  done. 

When  the  engineer  is  satisfied  that  the  truck,  pilot- 
braces,  center-castings,  and  all  their  connections  are 
in  proper  condition,  he  passes  on  to  the  motion.  His 
trained  eye  scans  every  bolt,  nut,  and  key  in  search  of 
defects.  The  eccentrics  are  examined,  to  see  that  set- 
screws  and  keys  are  all  tight.  Men  who  have  wrestled 
over  the  setting  of  eccentrics  on  the  road  are  not  likely 
to  forget  this  part.  Eccentric-straps  are  another  point 
of  solicitude.  A  broken  eccentric-strap  is  a  very  com- 
mon cause  of  break-down,  and  these  straps  very  seldom 
break  through  weakness  or  defect  of  the  casting.  In 
nearly  all  cases  the  break  occurs  through  loss  of  bolts, 
or  on  account  of  oil-passages  getting  stopped  up.  The 
links  are  carefully  gone  over,  then  the  wedges  and  ped- 
estal-braces come  in  for  an  examination  which  brings 
the  assurance  that  no  bolts  are  missing  or  wedge-bolts 
loose.  Passing  along,  the  careful  engineer  finds  many 
points  that  claim  his  attention ;  and  when  he  gets 
through  he  feels  comfortably  certain  that  no  trouble 
from  that  part  of  the  engine  will  be  experienced  during 
the  coming  trip.  The  runners  who  do  not  follow  this 


28  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGTNE  RUNNING. 

practice  are  not  aware  of  how  much  there  is  to  be  seen 
under  a  locomotive  when  the  examination  is  undertaken 
in  a  comprehensive  manner. 

OUTSIDE    INSPECTION. 

In  going  round  the  outside  of  the  engine  the  most 
important  points  for  examination  are  the  guides  and 
the  rods.  Guide-bolts,  rod-bolts,  and  keys,  with  the 
set-screws  of  the  latter,  are  the  minutiae  most  likely  to 
give  trouble  if  neglected.  In  going  about  the  engine 
oiling,  or  for  any  other  purpose,  it  is  a  good  thing  to 
get  in  the  habit  of  searching  for  defects.  When  a  man 
trains  himself  to  do  this,  it  is  surprising  how  natural 
it  comes  to  make  running  inspections.  As  he  oils  the 
eccentric-straps,  he  sees  every  bolt  and  nut  within 
sight ;  as  he  drops  some  oil  on  the  rods,  he  identifies 
the  condition  of  the  keys,  set-screws,  or  bolts;  while 
oiling  the  driving-boxes,  the  springs  can  be  conveniently 
examined ;  and  when  he  reaches  the  engine-trucks 
with  the  oil-can  he  is  sure  to  be  casting  his  searching 
eyes  over  the  portions  of  the  running-gear  within 
sight. 

OIL-CUPS. 

The  oil-cups  should  be  carefully  examined,  to  see 
that  they  are  in  good  feeding  order.  A  great  many 
feeders  have  been  invented,  which  guarantee  to  supply 
oil  automatically ;  but  I  have  never  yet  seen  the  cup 
which  could  long  dispense  with  personal  attention. 
And  this  does  not  apply  to  locomotives  alone,  but  to 
all  kinds  of  machinery.  The  worst  sort  of  oil-cup  will 


INSPECTION  OF   THE  LOCOMOTIVE.  29 

perform  its  functions  fairly  in  the  hands  of  a  capable 
man,  and  the  most  pretentious  cup  will  soon  cease  to 
lubricate  regularly  if  the  engineer  neglects  it.  The 
oil-cups  should  be  cleaned  out  at  regular  intervals: 
for  mud,  cinders,  and  dust  work  in ;  and  they  some- 
times retain  glutinous  matter  from  the  oil,  which  forms 
a  sticky  mixture  that  prevents  the  oil  from  running. 
The  eccentric-strap  cups  and  the  tops  of  the  driving- 
boxes  should  receive  similar  attention. 

In  looking  round  an  engine  it  is  a  good  plan  to  watch 
the  different  oil-cups  to  see  that  they  are  not  working 
loose.  Many  cups  that  are  strewed  over  the  country 
could  be  saved  by  a  little  more  attention.  A  cup  flying 
off  a  rod  when  an  engine  is  running  fast  becomes 
a  dangerous  projectile.  I  have  known  several  cases 
where  cups  went  back  through  the  cab  window.  I 
have  also  seen  several  cases  where  cups  worked  off 
the  guides  or  cross-head,  and  got  between  the  guides, 
doing  serious  damage.  One  instance  was  that  of  an 
engine  out  on  the  trial  trip.  It  smashed  the  cross- 
head  to  pieces,  and  let  the  piston  through  the  cylinder- 
head. 

INSPECTION   OF   RUNNING-GEAR. 

A  sharp  tap  with  a  hammer  on  the  tread  of  the  cast- 
iron  wheel  will  produce  a  clear,  ringing  sound  if  the 
wheel  is  in  good  order.  The  drivers  can  generally  be 
effectively  inspected  by  the  eye.  If  oil  be  observed 
working  out  between  the  wheel  and  axle,  attention  is 
demanded ;  for  the  wheel  may  be  getting  loose.  Mois- 
ture and  dirt  issuing  from  between  the  tire  and  wheel 


30  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

indicate  that  the  former  is  becoming  loose,  and  this  is 
a  common  occurrence  when  the  tires  are  worn  thin. 
When  a  wheel  is  running  so  that  the  flange  is  cutting 
itself  on  the  rail,  something  is  wrong,  which  also  de- 
mands immediate  attention.  Oblique  travel  of  wheels 
may  be  produced  by  various  causes.  If  the  axles  of 
the  driving-wheels  are  not  secured  at  right  angles  to 
the  frames,  and  parallel  with  each  other,  the  wheels  will 
run  tangentially  to  the  track,  according  to  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  axles.  Violent  strains  or  concussions,  such 
as  result  from  engines  jumping  the  track  about  switches, 
sometimes  spring  the  frames,  and  twist  the  axle-box 
jaws  away  from  their  true  position  enough  to  cause 
cutting  of  flanges  without  disabling  the  engine.  Tires 
wearing  unevenly  in  consequence  of  one  being  harder 
than  the  other  produce  a  similar  effect  Where  there 
are  movable  wedges  forward  and  aft  of  the  boxes,  the 
wheels  are  often  thrown  out  of  square  by  unskillful 
manipulation  of  these  wedges.  Engineers  running  en- 
gines of  this  kind  should  leave  the  forward  wedges 
alone.  Sometimes  the  center-pin  of  the  engine-truck 
gets  moved  from  the  true  central  position,  leading  the 
drivers  toward  the  ditch.  Diagnosing  the  cause  of 
wheel-cutting  is  no  simple  matter,  and  it  is  a  wise  plan 
for  engineers  to  allow  the  shopmen  to  devise  a  remedy. 

ATTENTIONS    TO    THE   BOILER. 

On  our  well-regulated  roads  engineers  are  not  re- 
quired to  inspect  their  boilers ;  as  expert  boiler-makers, 
who  can  readily  detect  a  broken  stay-bolt  or  broken 
brace,  have  to  make  periodical  examinations.  But  a 


INSPECTION  OF   THE   LOCOMOTIVE.  31 

prudent  engineer  will  keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  indica- 
tions that  show  weak  points  about  any  part  of  the 
boiler  or  fire-box.  -This  department  cannot  receive  too 
much  vigilance.  A  seam  or  stay-bolt  leaking  is  a  sign 
of  distress,  and  should  receive  immediate  attention. 
Leaks  under  the  jacket  should  never  be  neglected, 
although  they  are  hard  to  reach  ;  for  they  may  proceed 
from  the  beginning  of  a  dangerous  rupture.  A  leak 
starting  in  the  boiler-head  should  make  the  engineer 
ascertain  that  none  of  the  longitudinal  braces  have 
broken.  I  once  had  some  rivet-heads  on  my  boiler-head 
start  leaking,  and  presently  the  water-glass  broke. 
After  shutting  off  the  cocks,  I  found  that  the  boiler- 
head  was  bulged  out.  I  reduced  the  pressure  on  the 
boiler  as  quickly  as  possible.  When  the  boiler  was 
inspected,  it  was  found  that  two  of  the  longitudinal 
braces  were  broken,  and  the  head-sheet  was  bent  out 
two  inches. 

MISCELLANEOUS   ATTENTIONS. 

If  an  engineer  is  going  to  take  out  an  engine  the 
first  time  after  it  has  been  in  the  shop  for  repairs,  it 
is' a  good  plan  to  examine  the  tank  to  see  if  the  work- 
men have  left  it  free  from  bagging,  greasy  waste,  and 
other  impediments,  which  are  not  conducive  to  the  free 
action  of  pumps  or  injectors.  Keeping  the  tank  clean 
at  all  times  saves  no  end  of  trouble  through  derange- 
ment to  feeding-apparatus.  The  smoke-box  door 
should  be  opened  regularly,  and  the  petticoat-pipe  and 
cone  examined.  These  things  wear  out  by  use,  and  it 
is  better  to  have  them  renewed  or  repaired  before  they 


32  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

break  down  on  the  road.  A  cone  dropping  down 
through  failure  of  the  braces  makes  a  troublesome 
accident  on  the  road.  I  have  known  of  several  cabs 
being  badly  damaged  by  fire  through  the  cone  dropping 
down  and  closing  up  the  stack.  Where  engines  have 
extended  smoke-boxes,  the  nettings  and  deflectors 
must  be  inspected  at  frequent  intervals. 

REWARD    OF   THOROUGH    INSPECTION. 

To  go  over  an  engine  in  the  manner  indicated,  re- 
quires perseverance  and  industry.  The  work  will, 
however,  bring  its  full  reward  to  every  man  who  prac- 
tices the  care  and  watchfulness  entailed  by  regular  and 
systematic  inspection.  It  is  the  sure  road  to  success. 
He  who  regards  his  work  from  a  higher  plane  than 
that  of  mere  labor  well  done,  will  experience  satisfac- 
tion from  the  knowledge,  that,  understanding  the 
nobility  of  his  duties,  he  performed  them  with  the 
vigor  and  intelligence  worthy  of  his  responsible  calling, 


CHAPTER    IV. 
GETTING   READY   FOR  THE   ROAD. 

RAISING   STEAM. 

IT  used  to  be  the  universal  custom,  that,  when  an 
engine  arrived  from  a  trip,  the  fire  was  drawn,  and  the 
engine  put  into  the  round-house  for  ten  or  twelve 
hours  before  another  run  was  undertaken.  During 
this  period  of  inaction,  the  boiler  partly  cooled  down. 
When  the  engine  was  wanted  again,  a  new  fire  was 
started  in  time  to  raise  steam.  The  system  of  long 
runs,  introduced  on  many  roads,  has  changed  this ;' 
and  engines  are  now  generally  kept  hot,  unless  they 
have  to  be  cooled  down  for  washing  out,  or  repairs. 
When  an  engine  comes  in  off  a  trip,  the  fire  is  cleaned 
from  clinkers  and  dead  cinders,  and  the  clean  fire 
banked.  It  is  found  that  this  plan  keeps  the  tem- 
perature of  the  boiler  more  uniform  than  is  possible 
with  the  cooling-down  practice,  and  that  the  fire-box 
sheets  are  not  so  liable  to  crack,  or  the  tubes  to  become 
leaky. 

Where  it  is  still  the  habit  to  draw  the  fire  at  the  end 
of  each  trip,  a  supply  of  good  wood  is  kept  on  hand 
for  raising  steam.  On  some  roads  the  fires  in  the 

33 


34  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

locomotive  fire-boxes  are  kindled  by  oil  or  greasy 
waste.  To  raise  steam  from  a  cold  boiler,  some 
theorists  recommend  the  starting  of  a  fire  mild  enough 
to  raise  the  temperature  about  twenty  degrees  an  hour. 
The  exigencies  of  railroad  service  prevent  this  slow 
method  from  being  practicable,  and  the  ordinary  prac- 
tice is  to  raise  steam  as  promptly  as  possible  when  it 
is  wanted. 


PRECAUTIONS   AGAINST    SCORCHING   BOILERS. 

The  first  consideration  before  starting  a  fire  in  a 
locomotive  is  to  ascertain  that  the  boiler  contains  the 
proper  quantity  of  water.  The  men  who  attend  to 
the  starting  of  fires  should  be  instructed  not  to  depend 
upon  the  water-glass  for  the  level  of  the  water,  but  to 
see  that  it  runs  out  of  the  gauge-cocks.  I  have  known 
several  cases  where  boilers  were  burned  through  those 
firing  up  being  deceived  by  a  false  show  of  water  in 
the  glass,  and  starting  the  fire  when  the  boiler  was 
empty.  If  the  boiler  has  been  filled  with  water  through 
the  feed-pipes  by  the  round-house  hose,  care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  the  check-valves  are  not  stuck  up. 
Where  there  is  sand  in  the  water,  it  frequently  hap- 
pens, that,  in  filling  up  with  a  hose,  all  the  valves  get 
sanded,  and  do  not  close  properly.  When  there  is 
steam  on  the  boiler,  this  source  of  danger  will  generally 
be  indicated  at  once  by  the  steam  and  water  blowing 
back  into  the  tank;  but,  where  the  boiler  is  cold,  the 
water  flows  back  so  silently  and  slowly,  that  the  crown- 
sheet  may  be  dry  before  the  peril  is  discovered. 


GETTING   READY  FOR    THE   ROAD.  35 

STARTING   THE    FIRE. 

The  water  being  found  or  made  right,  the  next  con- 
sideration is  the  grates.  Before  throwing  in  the  wood, 
all  loose  clinkers  left  upon  the  grates  should  be  cleaned 
off:  care  should  be  taken,  to  see  that  the  grates  are  in 
good  condition,  and  connected  with  the  shaker-levers. 

This  is  also  the  time  to  see  that  no  accumulation  of 

• 

cinders  is  left  on  the  brick  arch,  the  water-table,  or  in 
the  combustion-chamber,  should  the  engine  be  pro- 
vided with  either  of  these  appliances. 

FIREMAN'S  FIRST  DUTIES. 

On  most  roads  the  engineer  and  fireman  are  re- 
quired to  be  at  their  engine  from  fifteen  minutes  to  half 
an  hour  before  train-time.  A  good  fireman  will  reach 
the  engine  in  time  to  perform  his  preliminary  duties 
deliberately  and  well.  He  will  have  the  dust  brushed 
off  from  the  cab-furnishing  and  from  the  conspicuous 
parts  of  the  engine,  the  deck  swept  clean,  the  coal 
watered,  and  the  oil-cans  ready  for  the  engineer.  •  His 
fire  is  attended  to,  and  its  make-up  regulated, — the 
kind  of  coal  used,  the  train  to  be  pulled,  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  road  on  the  start.  With  a  level  or  down 
grade  for  a  mile  or  two  on  the  start  the  fire  does  not 
need  to  be  so  well  made  up  as  when  the  start  is  made 
on  a  heavy  pull.  But  every  intelligent  fireman  gets  to 
understand  in  a  few  weeks  just  what  kind  of  a  fire  is 
needed.  It  is  the  capability  of  perceiving  this  and 
other  matters  promptly  that  distinguishes  a  good  from 
an  indifferent  fireman.  When  a  young  fireman  pos- 


3  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

sesses  these  "  true  workman  "  perceptions,  and  is  of 
an  industrious,  aspiring  disposition,  anxious  to  become 
master  of  his  calling,  he  will  prove  a  reliable  help  to 
the  engineer;  and  his  careful  attention  to  the  work  will 
insure  comfort  and  success  on  every  trip.  There  must 
be  a  certain  amount  of  work  done  on  the  engine,  to  get 
a  train  along ;  and  if  the  fireman  cannot  do  his  part 
efficiently  it  will  fall  upon  the  engineer,  who  must  get 
it  done  somehow. 

SAVING   THE    GRATES. 

An  important  duty,  which  is  never  neglected  by  first- 
class  firemen,  before  taking  the  engine  away  from  the 
round-house,  is  that  of  looking  to  the  grates,  and  seeing 
that  the  ash-pan  is  clean.  When  grates  get  burned, 
in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  it  happens  through  neglecting 
the  ash-pan.  Some  varieties  of  bituminous  coal  have 
an  inveterate  tendency  to  burn  the  grates.  Such  coal 
usually  contains  an  excess  of  sulphur,  which  has  a 
strong  affinity  for  iron,  and  at  certain  temperatures 
unites  with  the  surface  of  the  grates,  forming  a  sul- 
phuret  of  iron.  Neglecting  the  ash-pan,  and  letting 
hot  ashes  accumulate,  prepares  the  way  for  bad  coal  to 
act  on  the  grates.  Keeping  the  ash-pan  clear  of  hot 
ashes  is  the  best  thing  that  can  be  done  to  save  grates, 
since  that  prevents  the  iron  from  becoming  hot  enough 
to  combine  with  sulphur. 

SUPPLIES. 

Before  starting  out  the  fireman  ought  to  ascertain 
that  all  the  supplies  necessary  for  the  trip  are  in  the 


GETTING   READY  FOR    THE  ROAD.  37 

boxes ;  that  the  requisite  flags,  lanterns,  and  other  sig- 
nals are  on  hand,  and  that  all  the  lamps  are  trimmed. 
He  should  also  know  to  a  certainty  that  all  his  fire-irons 
are  on  the  tender,  that  the  latter  is  full  of  water,  and 
that  the  sand-box  is  full  of  sand. 

These  look  like  numerous  duties  as  preliminary  to 
starting,  but  they  are  all  necessary ;  and  the  fireman 
who  attends  to  them  all  with  the  greatest  regularity 
will  be  valued  accordingly.  Nearly  all  firemen  are  am- 
bitious to  become  engineers.  The  best  method  they 
can  pursue,  to  show  that  they  are  deserving  of  promo- 
tion, is  to  perform  their  own  duties  regularly  and  well. 
A  first-class  fireman  will  save  his  wages  each  trip  over 
the  expenditure  made  by  the  mediocre  fireman  :  a*  per- 
sistently bad  fireman  should  be  sent  to  another  calling 
without  delay.  Few  railroad  companies  can  afford  the 
extravagance  of  a  set  of  bad  firemen. 

ENGINEER'S  FIRST  DUTIES. 

Try  the  water.  That  is  the  most  important  call  upon 
the  engineer  when  he  first  enters  the  cab.  If  the  en- 
gine has  a  glass  water-gauge,  he  should  ascertain  by 
the  gauge-cocks  if  the  water-level  shown  in  the  glass 
be  correct.  A  water-glass  is  a  great  convenience  on 
the  road,  but  it  should  only  be  relied  on  as  an  auxiliary 
to  the  gauge-cocks.  Many  engineers  have  come  to 
grief  through  reposing  too  ''mplicit  confidence  in  the 
water-glass.  Engineer  Williams  was  considered  one  of 
the  most  reliable  men  on  the  A.  &  B.  road.  With  an 
express  train  he  started  out  on  time  one  morning;  and 
he  had  run  only  two  miles  when  the  boiler  went  up  in 


38  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

the  air,  with  fatal  results  to  both  occupants  of  the  cab. 
An  examination  of  the  wreck  showed  unmistakable  evi- 
dence of  overheated  sheets.  Circumstantial  evidence 
indicated  that  the  glass  .had  deceived  the  engineer  by 
a  false  water-level.  When  he  pulled  out,  the  fire-box 
sheets,  which  were  of  copper,  became  weakened  by  the 
heat,  so  that  the  crown-sheet  gave  way ;  the  reaction 
of  the  released  steam  tearing  the  boiler  to  pieces. 
Numerous  less  serious  accidents  originating  from  the 
same  cause  might  be  cited. 

REACHING   HIS   ENGINE    IN    GOOD    SEASON. 

An  engineer  who  has  a  proper  interest  in  his  work, 
and  thoroughly  appreciates  the  importance  of  it,  will 
reach  his  engine  in  tim^  to  perform  the  duties  of 
getting  her  ready  for  the  road  leisurely,  without  rush 
or  hurry.  Although  a  good  fireman  may  relieve  the 
engineer  of  many  preliminary  duties,  the  engineer  him- 
self should  be  certain  that  the  necessary  supplies  and 
tools  are  on  the  engine,  and  that  water  is  in  the  tank, 
and  the  sand-box  filled. 

OILING   THE    MACHINERY. 

Oiling  the  machinery  is  such  an  important  part  of  an 
engineer's  work,  and  the  success  of  a  fast  run  is  so  de- 
pendent upon  this  being  properly  done,  that  it  should 
never  be  performed  hurriedly.  Although  practice  with 
short  stoppages  at  stations  may  have  got  an  engineer 
into  the  way  of  rushing  round  an  engine  and  oiling  at 
express  speed,  it  is  no  reason  why  the  first  oiling  of  the 
trip  should  not  be  carefully  and  deliberately  attended 


GETTING   READY  FOR    THE  ROAD.  39 

to  when  there  is  an  opportunity.  In  addition  to  filling 
oil-cups,  lubricators,  and  oil-boxes,  this  is  a  good  time 
to  complete  the  inspection,  which  assures  the  engineer 
that  everything  about  the  engine  is  in  proper  running 
order.  When  anything  in  the  way  of  repairs  has 
freen  done  to  the  engine  since  she  came  off  the  last 
trip,  special  attention  has  generally  to  be  given  to  the 
parts  worked  at.  New  wheels  require  close  care  with 
the  packing  of  the  boxes ;  rod-brasses  reduced  entail 
an  additional  supply  of  oil  to  the  pins  for  the  first  few 
miles ;  guides  closed  should  insure  a  free  supply  of  oil 
till  it  is  found  that  the  cross-heads  run  cool. 

QUANTITY  OF  OIL  THAT  DIFFERENT   BEARINGS   NEED. 

While  oiling,  the  engineer  should  bear  in  mind  that 
it  is  of  paramount  importance  that  the  rubbing-sur- 
faces receive  lubrication  sufficient  to  keep  them  from 
heating;  but,  while  making  sure  that  no  bearings 
shall  run  dry,  lavish  pouring  of  oil  should  be  avoided. 
There  are  still  too  many  cases  to  be  noticed,  of  men 
pouring  oil  on  the  machinery  without  seeming  to  com- 
prehend the  exact  wants.  We  are  constantly  seeing 
cases  where  oil-cups  waste  their  measure  of  oil  through 
neglect  in  adjusting  the  feeders.  A  steady  supply, 
equal  to  the  requirements,  is  what  a  well-regulated 
cup  provides.  With  the  ordinary  quality  of  mineral 
oil,  six  drops  will  lubricate  the  back  end  of  a  main  rod 
for  one  mile  when  the  engine  is  pulling  a  load.  This 
applies  to  eight-wheel  engines  on  passenger  service. 
Heavier  small-wheeled  engines  will  require  a  quarter 
more  oil.  Guides  can  be  kept  moist  with  five  drops 


4O  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

of  oil  to  the  mile.  A  dry,  sandy  road  will  require  a 
more  liberal  supply.  With  good  feeders,  properly 
attended  to,  the  supply  can  equal  the  demand  with 
close  accuracy.  An  oil-cup  which  runs  out  the  oil 
faster  than  it  is  needed,  wastes  stores,  besmears  every- 
thing with  a  coating  of  grease,  and  is  likely  to  leave 
the  rubbing-surfaces  to  suffer  by  running  dry  before 
it  can  be  replenished.  A  cup  in  that  condition  also 
advertises  the  engineer  to  be  incompetent. 

LEAVING   THE    ENGINE-HOUSE. 

Before  moving  the  engine  out  of  the  house,  the 
cylinder-cocks  should  be  opened  so  that  water,  or  the 
steam  condensed  in  warming  the  pipes  and  steam- 
'chest,  may  escape.  After  ringing  the  bell,  and  giving 
workmen  employed  about  the  engine  time  to  get  out 
of  the  way,  the  throttle  should  be  opened  a  little,  and 
the  engine  moved  out  slowly  and  carefully.  If  there 
is  a  sufficient  pressure  of  steam  in  the  boiler,  and  the 
engine  refuses  to  move,  something  is  wrong.  Never 
force  an  engine.  Any  work  which  may  have  been 
performed  upon  it  while  in  the  house  will  probably 
indicate  the  nature  of  the  defect.  The  most  common 
cause  of  stalling  engines  in  the  house  is  a  miscalcula- 
tion of  the  piston-travel,  permitting  it  to  push  against 
the  cylinder-head.  Sometimes,  however,  the  setting 
of  the  valves  is  at  fault.  I  knew  a  case  where  the 
machinist  connected  the  backing-up  eccentric-strap 
with  the  top  of  the  link,  and  the  mistake  was  not  dis- 
covered till  they  attempted  to  move  the  engine  out  of 
the  house.  Another  blunder,  the  result  of  gross  care- 


GETTING  READY  FOR    THE  ROAD.  4! 

lessness,  was  where  a  cold- chisel  was  left  in  the  steam- 
chest.  But  a  more  representative  case  was  that  which 
happened  to  Engineer  Amos,  on  the  B.  &  C.  road. 
His  engine  had  the  piston-packing  set  up;  and  the 
following  morning,  when  he  tried  to  take  it  out  of  the 
house,  it  would  not  pass  a  certain  point.  Thinking 
that  the  packing  was  set  up  rather  tight,  he  backed 
for  a  start,  determined  to  make  it  go  over  on  the  run. 
He  succeeded,  too,  but  a  hammer  which  had  been  left 
in  the  cylinder  went  out  through  the  cover. 

While  running  from  the  round-house  to  the  train, 
is  a  good  time  to  carefully  watch  the  working*  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  engine.  Should  any  defects  exist, 
they  are  better  to  be  detected  now  than  after  the  en- 
gine is  out  with  a  train.  The  brakes  can  be  tested 
conveniently  at  this  time,  and  the  working  of  the  in- 
jectors tried.  All  these  matters  are  regularly  attended 
to  by  the  successful  engineer:  they  are  habitually 
neglected  by  the  unlucky  man,  and  misfortune  never 
loses  sight  of  him. 


CHAPTER  V. 
RUNNING  A  FAST  FREIGHT  TRAIN. 

RUNNING   FREIGHT   TRAINS. 

BY  far  the  greater  proportion  of  American  locomo- 
tive engineers  are  employed  on  freight  service.  On 
most  roads,  the  freight  engines  constitute  from 
seventy-five  to  ninety  per  cent  of  the  whole  locomo- 
tive equipment.  On  this  kind  of  service,  locomotive 
engineers  learn  their  business  by  years  of  hard  prac- 
tice in  getting  trains  over  the  road  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible on  time.  On  the  best  of  roads,  there  is  much 
hardship  to  be  undergone,  working  ahead  through 
every  discouragement  of  bad  weather  or  hard-steaming 
engines.  The  man  who  brings  the  most  energy,  good 
sense,  and  perseverance  to  his  aid,  will  come  out  most 
successfully  above  these  difficulties. 

Every  department  of  locomotive  engine  running  has 
difficulties  peculiar  to  itself.  Every  kind  of  train 
needs  to  be  handled  understandingly,  to  show  the 
best  results ;  but,  I  think,  getting  a  heavy  fast  freight 
train  on  time,  over  a  hilly  road,  having  a  single  track, 
requires  the  highest  degree  of  locomotive  engineering 
skill.  Therefore,  I  have  selected  that  form  of  train 
as  the  first  subject  of  description. 

4* 


RUNNING   A    FAST  FREIGHT   TRAIN.  43 

THE    ENGINE. 

The  engine  that  takes  the  train  over  the  road  is  a 
ten-wheeler  with  cylinders  18  X  26  inches,  driving- 
wheels  with  62-inch  centers,  and  a  total  weight  of 
130,000  pounds.  The  steam-pressure  carried  on  the 
boiler  is  180  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  the  heating- 
surface  and  grate-area  are  sufficiently  liberal  to  make 
steam  freely  at  high  or  low  speed.  The  tractive 
power  of  the  engine  at  slow  speed  is  about  20,000 
pounds. 

THE   TRAIN. 
This  consists  of  20  cars  weighing  about  700  tons. 

THE  DIVISION. 

The  physical  character  of  the  country,  which  is  roll- 
ing prairie,  makes  the  road  undulatory, — -up  hill,  then 
down  grade,  with  occasional  stretches  of  level  track. 
Some  of  the  gradients  rise  to  fifty  feet  to  the  mile, 
extending  over  two  miles  without  sagging  a  foot. 
Spund  steel  rails,  well  tied,  are  supported  by  a 
graveled  road-bed,  making  an  excellent  track,  and 
presenting  a  good  opportunity  for  fast  running  where 
high  speed  is  needed.  The  train  is  run  on  card-time, 
stopping  about  every  twelve  miles.  Like  most 
Western  roads,  the  stations  are  unprotected  by 
signals;  and  the  safety  of  trains  is  secured  mostly 
by  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  engineer  and  other 
train-men. 


44  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

PULLING   OUT. 

When  the  engineer  gets  the  signal  to  go,  he  drops 
the  reverse  lever  into  the  full  forward  notch,  gives  the 
engine  steam  gently,  with  due  care  to  avoid  breaking 
couplings,  and  applies  sand.  A  slight  sprinkling  of 
sand  only  is  dropped  on  the  rails,  which  keeps  the 
engine  from  slipping  while  getting  the  train  under 
way.  A  clear,  level  fire  is  burning  over  the  grates 
before  the  start  is  made,  and  this  suffices  till  the  most 
crowded  switches  are  passed :  so,  when  the  signal  to 
start  is  given,  the  fireman  closes  the  fire-door,  and 
opens  the  damper;  these  duties  not  preventing  him 
from  keeping  a  lookout  for  signals. 

HOOKING   BACK   THE   LINKS. 

As  the  engine  gets  the  train  into  motion,  the  engi- 
neer gradually  hooks  up  the  links.  This  is  not  done 
by  a  sudden  jerk  as  soon  as  the  engine  will  move,  with 
the  steam  cutting  off  short.  He  waits  for  that  till  the 
train  is  well  under  the  control  of  the  engine,  hooking 
up  gradually.  Some  men  think  that  it  is  best  to  get 
the  valves  up  to  short  travel  as  soon  as  possible,  with- 
out reflecting  that  it  is  better  for  the  motion  to  let  the 
engine  be  going  freely  before  hooking  up  short.  I 
have  often  seen  men  coming  into  terminal  stations 
with  a  heavy  fire  and  the  safety-valves  blowing,  and 
the  engine  toiling  slowly  along  with  the  links  hooked 
up  to  eight  inches  cut.  In  cases  of  this  kind,  a  runner 
may  better  work  the  engine  well  down,  so  that  the 
valve  will  travel  freely  over  the  seat.  By  doing  so 


RUNNING  A    FAST  FREIGHT   TRAIN.  45 

when  the  engine  is  working  slow  and  heavy,  there  will 
be  less  wear  to  the  valves,  and  less  danger  of  breaking 
a  valve  yoke.  It  is  only  in  cases  where  there  is  an 
advantage  in  saving  steam,  that  benefit  is  derived 
from  working  the  engine  close  hooked  back.  There 
is  a  right  time  for  all  things,  and  working  steam  ex- 
pansively is  no  exception  to  the  rule.  If,  however, 
the  start  has  been  made  with  a  light  fire,  the  engineer 
ought  to  lose  no  time  in  getting  the  links  well  notched 
back  to  give  the  fireman  an  opportunity  to  make  up 
his  fire.  While  starting  from  stations  it  is  all-impor- 
tant that  engineer  and  fireman  should  co-operate  to- 
gether. 

WORKING   THE    STEAM    EXPANSIVELY. 

At  the  right  time,  our  engineer  gets  the  reverse 
lever  notched  up ;  for  he  knows,  that  to  obtain  the 
greatest  amount  of  work  out  of  the  engine,  with  the 
least  possible  expenditure  of  fuel,  with  a  heavy  freight 
train,  the  links  must  be  hooked  back  as  far  as  can  be 
done  consistently  with  making  the  required  speed. 
Some  engines  will  not  steam  freely  when  run  close 
back  if  they  are  burning  coal  that  needs  a  strong 
draught.  This  is  the  exception,  however,  and  most 
engines  will  steam  best  in  this  position ;  and  many  of 
those  that  fail  to  steam  well  cutting  off  short  are  not 
properly  fired,  or  the  draught  appliances  need  adjust- 
ing. Most  firemen  who  run  with  a  heavy  fire  fail 
worst  with  engines  that  steam  indifferently  when 
notched  close  up.  Engineers  should  give  this  their 
attention,  and  do  everything  possible  to  make  the  en- 


46  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

gine  steam  while  working  with  the  lever  as  near  the 
center  notch  as  can  be  done  while  handling  the  train. 

ADVANTAGE    OF    CUTTING   OFF    SHORT. 

When  the  links  are  notched  close  towards  the 
center,  the  travel  of  the  valves  is  so  short  that  they 
close  the  steam-ports  shortly  after  the  beginning  of 
the  stroke,  at  six,  nine,  or  twelve  inches  of  the 
piston's  travel,  as  the  case  may  be,  permitting  the 
steam  to  push  the  piston  along  the  remainder  of  the 
stroke  by  its  expansive  power.  Steam  at  a  high 
pressure  is  as  full  of  potential  energy  as  a  compressed 
spiral  spring,  and  is  equally  ready  to  stretch  itself  out 
when  the  closing  of  the  port  imprisons  it  inside  the 
cylinder;  and,  by  this  act  of  expanding,  it  exerts 
immense  useful  energy,  which  would  escape  into  the 
smoke-stack  unutilized  if  the  cylinders  were  left  in 
communication  with  the  boiler  till  the  release  took 
place.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that  a  boiler-pressure 
of  14  tons  which  this  engine  can  develop  is  exerted 
upon  the  piston  from  the  beginning  to  the  middle  of 
the  stroke,  and  is  then  cut  off.  During  the  remainder 
of  the  stroke,  the  steam  will  continue  to  press  upon 
the  piston  with  a  regularly  diminishing  force,  till,  at 
the  end  of  the  stroke,  if  release  does  not  take  place 
earlier,  it  will  still  have  a  pressure  of  seven  tons.  The 
work  performed  by  the  steam  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  stroke  is  pure  gain,  due  to  its  expansive  prin- 
ciple. If  the  steam  is  cut  off  earlier,  at  a  third  or 
fourth  of  the  piston  travel,  the  gain  will  be  corre- 
spondingly great.  With  the  slide-valve  link-motion 


RUNNING   A    FAST  FREIGHT   TRAIN.  47 

used  on  locomotives,  the  steam  cannot  be  held  to  the 
end  of  the  stroke ;  but  the  principle  of  expansion 
holds  good  during  the  period  the  steam  is  held  in  the 
cylinders  after  the  cut-off. 

The  observing  engineer  of  any  experience  does  not 
require  to  have  the  advantages  of  working  his  engine 
expansively  impressed  upon  his  attention.  His  fuel- 
record  has  done  that  more  eloquently  than  pen  can 
write. 

DISADVANTAGE    OF   CUTTING   OFF   TOO    SOON. 

Working  the  steam  expansively  is,  like  nearly  every- 
thing else  in  engineering,  subject  to  modifications. 
With  some  steam-engines  the  steam  cannot  be  ex- 
panded more  than  two  or  three  times  before  the  loss 
due  to  cylinder  condensation  becomes  greater  than  the 
gain  from  expansion.  No  locomotives  can  be  worked 
economically  cutting  off  shorter  than  quarter  stroke, 
and  some  engines  do  better  if  the  steam  is  permitted 
to  follow  the  piston  a  little  farther  before  the  cut- 
off takes  place. 

BOILER-PRESSURE    BEST   FOR   ECONOMICAL  WORKING. 

There  is  a  close  and  constant  relation  between  the 
boiler-pressure  carried,  and  the  useful  work  obtained 
from  expansion  of  steam.  The  higher  the  pressure, 
the  greater  elasticity  the  steam  possesses.  The  ten- 
dency of  modern  steam-engineering  is,  to  employ  in- 
tensely high  boiler-pressure,  expanding  the  steam  by 
means  of  a  succession  of  cylinders,  so  that  it  is  re- 
duced to  low  tension  before  escaping  into  the  atmos- 


4$  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

phere,  or  into  the  condenser,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Wonderfully  economical  results  have  been  obtained  in 
this  manner, — results  which  can  never  be  approached 
in  locomotive  practice  while  the  ordinary  slide-valve 
is  used.  But,  while  we  cannot  hope  to  rival  the 
record  of  high-class  automatic  cut-off  engines,  their 
methods  can  teach  us  useful  lessons. 

It  is  advisable  to  keep  the  steam  constantly  close  to 
the  blowing-off  point.  During  a  day's  trip,  consider- 
ably less  water  will  be  evaporated  when  a  tension  of 
200  pounds  is  carried,  than  will  be  required  with  a 
pressure  of  140  pounds  or  under.  And,  where  less 
water  is  evaporated,  a  smaller  quantity  of  fuel  will  be 
consumed  in  doing  the  work.  Running  with  a  low 
head  of  steam  is  a  wasteful  practice,  for  several  good 
reasons.  The  comparatively  light  pressure  upon  the 
surface  of  the  water  allows  the  steam  to  pass  over 
damp,  or  mixed  with  a  light  watery  spray,  which  di- 
minishes its  energy;  since  the  wet  steam  contains  less 
expansive  medium  than  dry  steam.  It  requires  nearly 
the  same  expenditure  of  fuel  to  evaporate  water  at  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  alone,  that  it  does  to  make 
steam  at  the  higher  working  tensions :  consequently, 
the  work  obtained  by  the  expansion  of  the  high- 
pressed  steam  is  clear  gain  over  the  results  to  be  ob- 
tained by  working  at  a  low  pressure.  This  is  a  very 
important  principle  in  economical  steam-engineering. 
Engineers  who  are  accustomed  to  making  long  runs 
between  water-tanks,  when  every  gallon  is  needed  to 
carry  them  through,  know  that  their  sure  method  of 
getting  over  the  dry  division  successfully,  is  to  'carry 


RUNNING   A    FAST  FREIGHT   TRAIN.  49 

steam  close  to  the  popping-point,  link  up  to  the  most 
economical  point  of  cut-off,  and  see  that  no  loss  occurs 
through  the  safety-valves. 

RUNNING   WITH    LOW    STEAM. 

There  are  engineers  who  habitually  carry  merely 
sufficient  steam  to  get  them  along  on  time,  under  the 
mistaken  belief  that  they  are  working  economically. 
John  Brown  runs  steadily,  and  takes  as  good  care  of 
his  engine  as  any  man  on  the  A.  &  B.  road ;  but  he 
dislikes  to  hear  the  steam  escaping  from  the  safety- 
valves,  and  prevents  it  from  doing  so  by  habitually 
using  steam  thirty  pounds  below  the  blowing-pressure. 
The  consequence  is,  that  he  always  makes  a  bad  record 
on  the  coal-list,  compared  with  the  other  passenger 
men. 

MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FIRE. 

The  engine  has  moved  only  a  few  rods  from  the 
station  when  the  steam  shows  indications  of  blowing 
off;  and  then  the  fireman  sets  to  work, — not  to  pile  a 
heap  of  coal  indiscriminately  into  the  fire-box.  That 
is  the  style  of  the  dunce  whose  natural  avocation  is 
grubbing  stumps.  Ours  is  a  model  train,  and  a  model 
fireman  furnishes  the  power  to  keep  it  going.  He 
throws  in  from  one  to  three  shovelfuls  at  each  firing, 
scattering  the  coal  along  the  sides  of  the  fire-box 
shooting  a  shower  close  to  the  flue-sheet,  and  dropping 
the  required  quantity  under  the  door.  With  the  quick 
intuition  of  a  man  thoroughly  master  of  his  business, 
our  model  fireman  perceives  at  a  glance,  on  opening 


5O  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

the  door,  where  the  thinnest  spots  are ;  and  they  are 
promptly  bedded  over.  The  glowing,  incandescent 
mass  of  fire,  which  shines  with  a  blinding  light  that 
rivals  the  sun's  rays,  dazzles  the  eyes  of  the  novice,  who 
sees  in  the  fire-box  only  a  chaotic  gleam ;  but  the  ex- 
perienced fireman  looks  into  the  resplendent  glare, 
and  reads  its  needs  or  its  perfections.  The  fire  is 
maintained  nearly  level;  but  the  coal  is  supplied  so 
that  the  sides  and  corners  are  well  filled,  for  there  the 
liability  to  drawing  air  is  most  imminent.  With  this 
system  closely  followed,  there  is  no  difficulty  expe- 
rienced in  keeping  up  a  steady  head  of  steam.  But 
constant  attention  must  be  bestowed  upon  his  work  by 
the  fireman.  From  the  time  he  reaches  the  engine, 
until  the  hostler  takes  charge  at  the  end  of  the  jour- 
ney, he  attends  to  his  work,  and  to  that  alone ;  and 
by  this  means  he  has  earned  the  reputation  of  being 
one  of  the  best  firemen  on  the  road.  His  rule  is, 
to  keep  the  fire  up  equal  to  the  work  the  engine 
has  to  do,  never  letting  it  run  low  before  being  n_~ 
plenished,  never  throwing  in  more  coal  than  the  keep- 
ing up  of  steam  calls  for.  The  coal  is  broken  up 
moderately  fine,  a  full  supply  being  prepared  before 
the  fire-door  is  opened ;  and  every  shovelful  is  scat- 
tered in  a  thin  shower  over  the  fire, — never  pitched 
down  on  one  spot.  Some  men  never  acquire  the  art 
of  scattering  the  coal  as  it  leaves  the  shovel;  and,  as 
a  result,  they  never  succeed  in  making  an  engine  steam 
regularly.  Their  fire  consists  of  a  series  of  coal- 
heaps.  Under  these  heaps,  clinkers  are  prematurely 
formed  ;  and  between  them  spaces  are  created,  through 


RUNNING   A    FAST  FREIGHT    TRAIN.  51 

which  cold  air  comes,  and  rushes  straight  for  the  tubes, 
without  assimilating  with  the  gases  of  combustion,  as 
every  breath  of  air  which  enters  the  fire-box  ought  to 
do. 

CONDITIONS   THAT    DEMAND    GOOD    FIRING. 

Roads  that  are  hilly  require  far  more  skillful  man- 
agement to  get  a  train  along  than  is  called  for  on  level 
roads,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  extra  dexterity  is 
needed  from  the  fireman.  To  get  a  heavy  train  up  a 
steep  hill,  it  is  generally  run  at  a  high  speed  before 
reaching  the  grade,  so  that  the  momentum  of  the 
train  can  be  utilized  in  climbing  the  ascent.  Running 
for  a  hill  is  a  particularly  trying  time  on  the  fireman ; 
for  the  engine  is  rushing  at  a  high  speed,  and  often 
working  heavily.  This  ordeal  must  be  prepared  for 
in  advance,  by  having  the  fire  well  made  up,  and  kept 
at  its  heaviest  by  frequent  firing.  When  the  engine 
gets  right  on  to  the  grade,  toiling  up  with  decreasing 
speed,  every  pound  of  steam  is  needed  to  save  doub- 
ling, and  steady  watchfulness  is  required  to  prevent  a 
relapse  of  steam ;  but  the  danger  of  the  engine  "  turn- 
ing "  the  fire  is  not  nearly  so  great  as  it  was  when 
running  fast  for  the  hill. 

HIGHEST   TYPE    OF   FIREMAN. 

The  highest  type  of  fireman  is  one  who,  with  the 
smallest  quantity  of  fuel,  can  keep  up  a  good  head  of 
steam  without  wasting  any  by  the  safety-valves.  He 
endeavors  to  strike  this  mean  of  successs  by  keeping  an 
even  fire;  but  it  sometimes  happens,  that  the  closest 


52  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

care  will  not  prevent  the  steam  from  showing  indica- 
tions of  blowing  off.  When  this  is  the  case,  he  keeps 
it  back  by  closing  the  dampers,  or,  if  that  is  not  suffi- 
cient, opens  the  door  a  few  inches.  Immense  harm  is 
done  to  tubes  and  fire-boxes  by  injudicious  firing. 

When  the  train  is  ready  to  start,  there  is  a  glowing 
fire  on  the  grates,  sufficient  to  keep  up  steam  until  the 
reverse-lever  is  notched  back  after  the  train  has 
worked  into  speed.  With  heavy  freight  trains  this 
firing  is  made  sufficient,  so  that  the  door  has  not  to  be 
opened  until  the  tremendous  exertion  of  starting  is 
over.  When  the  time  for  replenishing  the  fire  arrives, 
the  good  fireman  knows  either  from  instruction  or  by 
observation  that  the  effect  of  throwing  fresh  coal  into 
the  burning  mass  of  the  fire-box  is  similar  to  that  of 
pouring  a  dipperful  of  cold  water  into  a  boiling  kettle. 
The  cold  coal  cools  the  fire,  and  if  thrown  in  in  large 
quantities  its  tendency  is  to  depress  the  burning 
mass  for  a  brief  time  below  the  igniting-point.  A 
small  quantity  of  cold  water  does  not  check  the  boiling 
of  a  kettle  much,  and  three  or  four  shovelfuls  of  coal 
are  little  felt  on  the  fire  of  a  big  locomotive ;  so  our 
man  throws  in  only  a  few  scoopfuls  at  a  time,  is  quite 
deliberate  in  applying  each  charge,  scattering  it  over 
the  surface  of  the  burning  mass,  so  that  each  portion 
of  fresh  supply  quickly  gives  up  its  hydrocarbon  gases 
and  becomes  a  vital  addition  to  the  bed  of  incandescent 
fuel.  This  bed  of  glowing  fuel,  on  which  the  fresh 
coal  is  thrown,  being  comparatively  thin,  a  supply  of 
air  passes  through  sufficient  to  provide  the  necessary 
oxygen  to  the  hydrocarbons  released,  and  the  gases 


RUNNING   A    FAST  FREIGHT   TRAIN.  53 

are  burnt  with  the  high  generation  of  heat  of  which 
they  are  capable. 

SHAKING   THE    GRATES. 

Should  indications  appear  that  the  fire  is  not  receiv- 
ing sufficient  air,  our  fireman  gently  shakes  the  grates, 
an  operation  which  is  repeated  during  the  trip  at 
intervals  sufficient  to  keep  the  fire  as  clean  as  possible. 
No  act  marks  the  poor  fireman  so  strongly  as  his 
method  of  shaking  grates.  He  does  the  work  so  vio- 
lently and  so  frequently  that  a  great  deal  of  fuel  is 
wasted.  The  fire  is  perniciously  disturbed,  and  unless 
it  is  very  heavy,  holes  are  made  which  admit  the  cold 
air.  Good  coal  requires  no  more  grate-shaking  than 
what  will  prevent  clinkers  from  hardening  between 
the  grate-openings.  Coal  that  contains  a  great  deal  of 
ash  will  be  burned  to  greater  advantage  when  the 
grates  are  shaken  lightly  and  frequently,  and  this 
shaking  should  be  done  by  short,  quick  jerks.  The 
long,  slow  movement  that  some  men  give  the  grates, 
in  shaking,  merely  moves  the  clinkers  resting  upon 
them.  The  purpose  of  shaker-grates  is  to  provide  a 
means  of  breaking  the  clinker,  so  that  it  will  fall  into 
the  ash-pan  and  permit  the  dead  ashes  to  fall. 

AT   STOPPING-POINTS. 

When  approaching  a  stopping-place,  our  fireman 
takes  care  to  have  sufficient  fuel  in  the  fire-box,  so  that 
he  will  not  have  to  begin  firing  until  the  start  is  made. 
When  this  has  not  been  done,  a  fresh  supply  of  coal 
should  be  applied  while  the  engine  is  standing  at  the 


54  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

station.  The  common  practice  of  throwing  open  the 
door  and  beginning  to  fire  as  soon  as  the  throttle  is 
open,  is  very  hard  on  fire-boxes,  because  the  cold 
air  drawn  through  the  door  strikes  the  fire-box  sheets 
and  tubes,  contracting  the  metal  and  tending  to  pro- 
duce leakage.  Firing  just  as  a  train  is  pulling  out  of 
a  station  is  bad  for  another  reason — at  that  time  the 
fireman  ought  to  be  looking  out  for  signals. 

FIRES    TO    SUIT   THE    WORK   TO    BE   DONE. 

The  good  fireman  maintains  the  fire  in  a  condition 
to  suit  the  work  the  engine  has  to  do.  At  parts  of  the 
road  where  there  are  grades  that  materially  increase 
the  work  to  be  done,  he  makes  the  fire  heavier  to  suit 
the  circumstances,  but  this  is  done  gradually,  and  not 
by  pitching  a  heavy  charge  of  fresh  coal  into  the  fire- 
box at  one  time.  This  system  of  firing  keeps  the  tem- 
perature of  the  boiler  as  even  as  possible,  and  has  the 
double  result  of  being  easy  on  the  boiler  and  using 
coal  to  the  best  advantage.  From  the  time  he  reaches 
the  engine  until  the  hostler  takes  charge  at  the  end  of 
the  journey,  this  fireman  attends  to  his  work,  and  to 
his  work  alone.  It  is  only  by  concentrated  attention 
to  the  work  to  be  done  that  a  fireman  can  do  it  in  a 
first-class  manner. 

There  are  circumstances  where  the  method  of  firing 
described  would  not  be  a  success,  because  certain 
coals  and  certain  engines  require  special  treatment. 
But,  in  a  general  way,  the  methods  described  are 
those  of  the  most  successful  firemen. 


KUNNIKG   A    FAST  FREIGHT    TRAIN.  55 

SCIENTIFIC    METHODS    OF    GOOD    FIREMEN. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  a  man  should  be  deeply  read 
in  natural  philosophy  to  understand  intimately  what 
are  actually  the  scientific  laws  of  the  business  of  firing. 
Mr.  Lothian  Bell,  the  eminent  metallurgist,  somewhere 
expresses  high  admiration  for  the  exact  scientific  meth- 
ods attained  in  their  work  by  illiterate  puddlers.  Al- 
though they  knew  nothing  about  chemical  combina- 
tions or  processes  they  manipulated  the  molten  mass 
so  that,  with  the  least  possible  labor,  the  iron  was  sep- 
arated from  its  impurities.  In  a  similar  way,  firemen 
skillful  in  their  calling  have,  by  a  process  of  induction, 
learned  the  fundamental  principles  of  heat-develop- 
ment. By  experiments,  carefully  made,  they  perceive 
how  the  greatest  head  of  steam  can  be  kept  up  with 
the  smallest  cargo  of  coal ;  and  they  push  their  percep- 
tions into  daily  practice. 

If  an  accomplished  scientist  were  to  ride  on  the 
engine,  observing  the  operations  of  a  first-class  fireman, 
he  would  find  that  nearly  all  the  carbon  of  the  coal 
combined  with  its  natural  quantity  of  oxygen  to  pro- 
duce carbon  dioxide,  thereby  giving  forth  its  greatest 
heat-power;  and  that  the  hydrocarbons,  the  volatile 
gases  of  the  coal,  performed  their  share  of  calorific 
duty  by  burning  with  an  intensely  hot  flame.  He 
would  find  that  these  hydrocarbon  gases,  although 
productive  of  high-power  duty  when  properly  con- 
sumed, were  ticklish  to  manage  just  right,  for  they 
would  pass  through  the  tubes  without  producing  flame 
if  they  were  not  fully  supplied  with  air;  and,  if  the 
supply  of  air  were  too  liberal,  it  would  reduce  the 


$6  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

temperature  of  the  fire-box  below  the  igniting-point 
for  these  gases,  which  is  higher  than  red-hot  iron,  and 
they  would  then  escape  in  the  form  of  worthless 
smoke.  Our  model  fireman  manages  to  consume  these 
gases  as  thoroughly  as  they  can  be  consumed  in  a  loco- 
motive fire-box. 

THE    MEDIUM    FIREMAN. 

John  Barton  is  considered  a  first-class  fireman  by 
some  men.  He  works  hard  to  keep  up  steam,  and  is 
never  satisfied  unless  the  safety-valves  are  screaming. 
He  carries  a  heavy  fire  all  the  time;  and,  when  the 
pop-valves  rise,  he  pulls  the  door  open  till  they  sub- 
side, gets  in  a  few  shovelfuls  more  coal,  closes  the  door 
till  the  steam  blows  off  again,  and  repeats  the  opera- 
tion of  throwing  open  the  door.  This  man  has  learned 
only  the  half  of  his  business.  He  has  got  through  his 
head  how  to  keep  up  steam,  but  he  has  not  acquired 
the  more  delicate  operation  of  keeping  it  down  wisely 
and  well.  Training  /with  an  intelligent  engineer 
anxious  to  make  a  good  fuel-record,  will,  in  a  few 
months,  improve  Barton  wonderfully.  Barton  is  the 
medium  fireman. 

THE  HOPELESSLY  BAD  FIREMAN. 
Behind  him  comes  Tom  Jackson,  the  man  of  indis- 
criminately heavy  firing.  Tom's  sole  aim  is  to  get 
over  the  road  with  the  least  possible  expenditure  of 
personal  exertion.  He  tumbles  in  a  fire  as  if  he  were 
loading  a  wagon,  the  size  of  the  door  being  his  sole 
gauge  for  the  lumps.  When  the  fire-box  is  filled  to 
the  neighborhood  of  the  door,  he  climbs  up  on  the 


RUNNING  A    FAS 'T  FREIGHT   TRAIN.  $7 

seat,  and  reclines  there  till  the  steam  begins  to  go 
back  through  drawing  air;  then  he  gets  down  again, 
and  repeats  the  filling-up  process,  intent  only  on  get- 
ting upon  the  seat-box  with  as  little  delay  as  possible. 

Some  men  are  so  constituted  that  they  never  make 
good  firemen,  no  matter  how  much  they  may  try. 
The  average  bad  fireman  is,  however,  of  that  quality 
because  he  never  tries  to  be  a  good  one.  The  average 
bad  fireman  is  careless  about  how  his  work  is  done ; 
indifferent  about  how  his  inferiority  may  cause  delay 
to  trains,  annoyance  to  the  engineer,  or  expense  to 
the  company.  All  he  cares  for  is  to  get  through  his 
work  with  as  little  personal  exertion  as  possible.  It 
often  happens  that  his  efforts  to  shirk  the  most  nec- 
essary part  of  his  work  greatly  increase  his  labors  be- 
fore a  trip  is  finished  ;  yet  he  will  go  through  the  same 
performance  on  the  next  run. 

When  called  to  go  out  on  a  run,  the  poor  fireman 
reaches  the  engine-house  just  as  it  is  time  to  start  for 
the  train.  He  pitches  some  coal  into  the  fire-box,  and 
sweeps  the  cab  and  waters  the  coal  as  the  engine  is  on 
its  way  to  the  starting-point.  As  soon  as  the  engine 
pulls  out,  working  hard  to  force 'the  train  into  speed, 
this  fireman  pulls  open  the  fire-door  and  throws  in  a 
heavy  load  of  coal.  Steam  begins  to  go  back  and  the 
engineer  shuts  off  the  injector.  As  the  fire  burns 
through,  the  steam  comes  up  ;  and  just  as  the  engineer 
finds  it  necessary  to  start  the  injector  again,  the  fire- 
man jerks  open  the  fire-door  and  pitches  in  eight  or 
ten  shovelfuls  of  coal  as  fast  as  he  can  drop  it  inside 
the  door;  then  he  climbs  up  on  the  seat  and  waits  for 


58  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNTNG. 

the  black  smoke  ceasing  to  flow  from  the  stack  as  the 
signal  to  get  down  and  repeat  his  method  of  firing. 

Finding  that  the  engine  is  not  steaming  freely  un- 
der his  treatment,  he  gets  down  reluctantly  and  tears 
up  the  fire  by  violent  use  of  the  shaking-lever.  When 
the  train  reaches  a  stopping-place,  this  kind  of  fire- 
man occupies  himself  looking  at  the  sights,  and  pays 
no  attention  to  the  fire  until  the  signal  to  start  is  given, 
when  he  throws  open  the  door  again  and  repeats  the 
operation  of  firing  followed  at  the  first  start. 

By  this  method  of  firing  small  mounds  of  coal  are 
dropped  promiscu.ously  over  the  grates.  In  interven- 
ing spots  the  grates  are  nearly  bare,  and  cold  air 
passes  through  without  meeting  carbon  to  feed  upon, 
and  not  sufficiently  heated  to  ignite  with  the  volatile 
compounds  distilling  from  the  mounds.  The  product 
is  worthless  smoke.  Each  mound  is  a  protection  for 
the  formation  of  clinker,  which  grows  so  rapidly  that 
the  shaking-bar  has  to  be  frequently  toiled  on  to  let 
sufficient  air  through  the  fire  to  make  steam  enough  for 
making  slow  time. 

The  result  of  this  fireman's  way  of  working  is  irri- 
tation all  round.  Towards  the  end  of  the  trip  he  is 
overworked,  throwing  the  extra  coal  needed  and  the 
hard  shaking  of  grates.  At  every  stopping-place  he 
has  to  crawl  beneath  the  engine  to  clean  the  ash-pan, 
and  is  fortunate  if  the  grates  are  not  partly  burned. 
The  practical  result  for  this  man's  employers  is  that 
he  has  burned  from  25  to  35  per  cent  more  coal  than 
a  first-class  fireman  would  need  for  doing  the  same 
work. 


CHAPTER    VI. 
GETTING   UP   THE   HILL. 

SPECIAL    SKILL   AND    ATTENTION     REQUIRED    TO    GET 
A    TRAIN    UP    A    STEEP    GRADE. 

IN  the  last  chapter,  some  details  were  given  of  the 
methods  pursued  in  starting  out  with  a  heavy  fast 
freight  train.  Where  a  train  of  that  kind  has  to  climb 
heavy  grades,  special  skill  and  attention  are  needed  in 
making  the  ascent  successfully. 

GETTING  READY  FOR  THE  GRADE. 

The  track  for  the  first  two  miles  from  the  starting- 
point  is  nearly  level,  permitting  the  engineer  and  fire- 
man to  get  ready  for  a  long  pull  not  far  distant.  At 
the  second  mile-post  a  light  descending  grade  is 
reached,  which  lasts  one  mile,  and  is  succeeded  by  an 
ascending  grade  two  and  a  half  miles  long,  rising  fifty- 
five  feet  to  the  mile. 

WORKING   UP   THE    HILL. 

At  the  top  of  the  descending  grade,  the  engineer 
hooks  up  the  links,  using  a  light  throttle  while  the 
train  is  increasing  in  speed,  until  the  base  of  the 

59 


60  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNTNG. 

ascent  is  nearly  reached,  when  he  gets  the  throttle  full 
open,  letting  the  engine  do  its  best  work  in  the  first 
notch  off  the  center.  By  this  time  the  train  is  swing- 
ing along  thirty  miles  an  hour,  and  is  well  on  to  the 
hill  before  the  engine  begins  to  feel  its  load.  Decrease 
of  speed  is  just  becoming  perceptible  when  the  valve- 
travel  gets  the  benefit  of  another  notch,  and  the  en- 
gine pulls  at  its  load  with  renewed  vigor.  But  soon 
the  steepness  of  the  ascent  asserts  itself  in  the  labor- 
ing exhausts ;  and  the  reverse-lever  is  advanced  another 
notch,  to  prevent  the  speed  from  getting  below  the 
velocity  at  which  the  engine  is  capable  of  holding  the 
train  on  this  grade.  While  the  engineer  is  careful  to 
maintain  the  speed  within  the  power  of  his  locomotive, 
he  is  also  watchful  not  to  increase  the  valve-travel  faster 
than  his  fire  can  stand  it ;  for,  were  he  to  jerk  the  lever 
two  or  three  notches  ahead  at  the  beginning  of  the  pull, 
the  chances  would  be  that  he  would  "  turn  "  its  fire,  or 
tear  it  up  so  badly  that  the  steam  would  go  back  on  him 
before  he  got  half  a  mile  farther  on.  Before  the  train 
is  safe  over  the  summit,  it  will  probably  be  necessary  to 
have  the  engine  working  down  to  2 1  inches :  but  the 
advance  to  this  long  valve-travel  is  made  by  degrees ; 
each  increase  being  dependent  upon,  and  regulated  by, 
the  speed.  The  quadrant  is  notched  to  give  the  cut- 
off at  6,  9,  12,  15,  18,  21,  and  23  inches.  Repeated 
experiments,  carefully  watched,  have  convinced  the 
engineer  of  this  locomotive  that  its  maximum  power 
is  exerted  in  the  21 -inch  notch;  so  he  never  puts  the 
lever  down  in  the  "corner"  on  a  hill.  A  great  many 
engines  act  differently,  however,  showing  increased 


GETTING    UP    THE  HILL.  6 1 

power  for  every  notch  advanced.  If  the  cars  in  the 
train  should  prove  easy  running, — and  there  are  great 
differences  in  cars  in  this  respect, — it  may  not  be 
necessary  to  hook  the  engine  below  15  inches,  or  even 
12  will  suffice  for  some  trains;  but  this  can  only  be 
determined  by  seeing  how  the  engine  holds  the  speed 
in  the  various  notches. 

WHEEL-SLIPPING. 

As  the  engine  gets  well  on  to  the  grade,  and  is  ex- 
erting heavy  tractive  power,  the  wheels  are  liable  to 
commence  slipping;  arid  it  is  very  important  that  they 
should  be  prevented  from  doing  so.  An  ounce  of  pre- 
vention is  known  to  be  worth  a  pound  of  cure;  and  it 
pays  an  engineer  to  assure  himself  that  no  drips  from 
feed-pipes,  or  cylinder-cocks,  or  from  any  other  foun- 
tain, are  dropping  upon  the  rails  ahead  of  the  driving- 
wheels.  There  is  no  use  telling  an  engineer  of  the 
decreased  adhesion  which  the  drivers  exert  on  half- wet 
rails,  from  what  they  do  on  those  that  are  clean  arid 
dry.  Knowing  the  difference  in  this  respect,  every 
engineer  should  endeavor  to  prevent  the  wetting  of  the 
rails  by  leaks  from  his  engine ;  for  hundreds  of  engines 
get  "  laid  down  "  on  hills  from  slipping  induced  by  this 
very  cause. 

HOW    TO    USE    SAND. 

The  first  consideration  in  this  regard  is  to  have  clean, 
dry  sand,  and  easy-working  box  valves.  Then  the  en- 
gineer should  know  how  far  the  valves  open  by  the 
distance  he  draws  the  lever.  In  starting  from  a  station, 


62  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

or  working  at  a  point  where  slipping  is  likely  to  com- 
mence, the  valves  should  be  opened  a  little,  and  a  slight 
sprinkling  of  sand  dropped  on  the  rails.  This  often 
serves  the  purpose  of  preventing  slipping  just  as  well 
as  a  heavy  coating  of  sand.  And  it  has  none  of  the 
objectionable  features  of  thick  sanding.  Trains  often 
get  stalled  on  grades  by  the  sand-valves  being  allowed 
to  run  too  freely.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence 
for  engineers  to  open  the  valves  wide,  and  let  all  the 
sand  run  upon  the  rails  that  the  pipe  will  carry,  so  that 
a  solid  crust  covers  each  rail,  and  every  wheel  on  the 
train  gets  clogged  with  the  powdered  silica ;  and,  after 
the  train  has  passed  over,  a  coating  is  left  for  the  next 
one  that  comes  along. 

The  wheels  scatter  their  burden  of  powdered  sand 
into  the  axle-boxes,  and  it  grinds  its  way  inside  the 
rod-brasses,  and  part  of  it  gets  wafted  upon  the  guides ; 
and  in  all  these  positions'it  is  matter  decidedly  in  the 
wrong  place.  And  this  body  of  sand  under  the  wheels 
increases  the  resistance  in  the  same  way  as  a  wagon  is 
harder  to  pull  among  gravel  than  it  is  on  a  clean,  hard 
road  :  the  indiscreet  engineer  complains  about  the  train 
being  stiff  to  haul ;  and  the  chances  are,  that  he  goes 
twice  up  the  hill  before  the  whole  train  is  got  over. 
Uncle  Toby's  plan  is,  when  pulling  on  a  heavy  grade, 
to  open  the  valve  enough  to  let  the  drivers  leave  a 
slight  white  impression  on  the  rails.  If  they  slip,  he 
gives  a  few  particles  rr.ore  sand,  but  decreases  the 
supply  again  so  soon  as  the  drivers  will  hold  with  the 
diminished  quantity.  Uncle  Toby  seldom  needs  to 
double  a  hill. 


GETTING    UP    THE  HILL.  63 

These  remarks  are  for  the  use  of  men  running  en- 
gines with  the  common  sand-boxes  and  valves.  The 
modern  locomotives  have  automatic  devices  which 
place  the  sand  where  it  will  do  the  most  good  and  does 
not  cause  waste  and  annoyance  by  dropping  an  over- 
supply. 

All  efficient  engineers  are  careful  not  to  have  their 
sanding-apparatus  in  the  condition  that  only  one  sand- 
pipe  is  feeding.  That  is  a  common  cause  of  brokea 
crank-pins  and  side-rods. 

SLIPPERY   ENGINES. 

These  remarks  apply  to  ordinary  engines  with  ordi- 
nary rail-conditions.  Occasionally  we  find  an  engine 
inveterately  given  to  slipping,  and  no  conditions  seem 
able  to  keep  it  down.  Such  an  engine  is  as  ready  to 
whirl  its  wheels  as  an  ugly  mule  is  to  kick  up  its  heels, 
and  upon  as  little  provocation.  With  a  dirty,  half-wet 
rail,  an  engine  of  this  kind  loses  half  its  power.  The 
causes  that  make  an  engine  bad  for  slipping  are  various. 
Excess  of  cylinder-power  or  very  hard  steel  tires,  are 
the  most  frequent  causes  of  slipping ;  but  badly  worn 
tires  sometimes  produce  a  similar  effect ;  or  the  blame 
may  rest  in  a  short  wheel-base,  deficiency  in  weight,  or 
in  too  flexible  driving-springs.  To  get  a  slippery 
engine  over  the  road  when  the  rails  are  moist  and 
dirty,  requires  the  exercise  of  unmeasured  patience 
by  the  engineer.  The  tendency  of  an  engine  to  slip 
may  be  checked  to  some  extent  by  working  with  the 
lever  well  ahead  towards  full  stroke,  and  throttling 
the  steam.  This  gives  a  more  uniform  piston-pres- 


64  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

sure  than  is  possible  while  working  expansively.  Of 
two  evils,  it  is  best  to  choose  the  least.  The  smallest 
in  this  case  is  losing  the  benefits  of  expansion,  and 
getting  over  the  road. 

FEEDING  THE    BOILER. 

Some  engineers  claim  that  the  most  economical  re- 
sults can  be  obtained  from  an  engine  by  running  with 
the  water  as  low  as  possible,  consistent  with  safety. 
They  hold,  that,  so  long  as  the  water  is  sufficiently 
high  to  cover  the  heating-surfaces,  there  is  enough  to 
make  steam  from ;  and  the  ample  steam-room  remain- 
ing above  the  water  assures  a  more  perfect  supply  of 
dry  steam  for  the  cylinders  than  can  be  had  from  the 
more  contracted  space  left  above  a  high  water-line. 
Old  engineers,  running  locomotives  furnished  with  en- 
tirely reliable  feeding-apparatus,  may  be  able  to  carry 
a  low  water-level  advantageously,  especially  with  light 
trains  and  level  roads;  but  with  ordinary  men,  aver- 
age injectors,  and  the  common  run  of  roads  a  high 
water-level  is  safest.  With  a  high  water-level  the 
temperature  of  the  boiler  can  be  kept  nearly  uniform ; 
for  the  increased  volume  of  water  holds  an  accumu- 
lated store  of  heat,  which  is  not  readily  affected  by 
the  feed.  And  the  surplus  store  is  convenient  to  draw 
upon  in  making  the  best  of  a  time-order,  or  in  getting 
over  a  heavy  grade.  Then,  if  the  injectors  fail,  a  full 
boiler  of  water  often  enables  a  man  to  examine  the 
delinquent  feeding-apparatus,  and  set  it  going; 
whereas,  with  low  water,  the  only  resource  would  be 
to  dump  the  fire. 


TING    UP    THE  HILL.  65 


The  right-hand  injector  is  used  most  for  feeding  the 
boiler,  but  several  times  during  each  trip  the  left-hand 
injector  is  called  into  service,  a  thing  necessary  to 
keep  it  in  good  working  order.  On  a  heavy  grade  one 
injector  will  not  supply  all  the  water  necessary  for 
steam-making,  and  the  other  is  put  to  work.  This  is 
generally  done  when  the  slow,  heavy  pull  begins  and 
the  steam  reaches  near  to  the  blowing-off  point.  Dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  ascent,  the  water  is  supplied 
as  liberally  as  it  can  be  carried ;  and  the  top  of  the 
grade  finds  the  engine  with  a  full  boiler.  This  en- 
ables the  engineer  to  preserve  a  tolerably  even  boiler 
temperature;  for  in  running  down  the  long  descent 
which  follows,  where  the  engine  runs  several  miles 
without  working  steam,  the  injectors  can  be  shut  off, 
and  sudden  cooling  of  the  boiler  avoided.  The  pres- 
ervation of  flues  and  fire-box  sheets  depends  very 
much  upon  the  manner  of  feeding  the  water.  Some 
men  are  intensely  careless  in  this  matter.  In  climb- 
ing a  grade,  they  let  the  water  run  down  till  there  is 
scarcely  enough  left  to  cover  the  crown-sheet  when 
they  reach  the  summit.  Then  they  dash  on  the  feed, 
and  plunge  cold  water  into  the  hot  boiler,  which  is 
then  peculiarly  liable  to  be  easily  cooled  down,  owing 
to  the  limited  quantity  of  hot  water  it  contains.  The 
fact  of  having  the  steam  shut  off,  greatly  aggravates 
the  evil ;  for  there  is  then  no  intensity  of  heat  passing 
through  the  flues  to  counteract  the  chilling  effect  of 
the  feed-water.  If  it  is  necessary  to  feed  while  run- 
ning with  the  steam  shut  off,  the  blower  should  be 
kept  going ;  which  will,  in  some  measure,  prevent  the 


66  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

change  of  temperature  from  being  dangerously  sud- 
den. There  will  probably  be  some  loss  from  steam 
blowing  off,  but  this  is  the  smaller  of  two  evils. 

Engineers  are  not  likely  to  feed  the  boiler  too 
lavishly  when  working  hard,  for  the  injection  of  cold 
water  instantly  shows  its  effect  by  reducing  the  steam- 
pressure.  But  this  is  not  the  case  when  running  with 
the  throttle  closed.  The  circulation  in  the  boiler  is 
then  so  sluggish,  that  the  temperature  of  the  water 
may  be  reduced  many  degrees,  while  the  steam  con- 
tinues to  show  its  highest  pressure. 

Writers  on  physical  science  tell  us  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  water  and  steam  in  a  boiler  is  always  the  same, 
and  varies  according  to  pressure ;  that,  at  the  atmos- 
phere's pressure,  water  boils  at  212  degrees,  and  pro- 
duces steam  of  the  same  temperature.  At  10  pounds 
above  the  atmospheric  pressure,  the  water  will  not 
evaporate  into  steam  until  it  has  reached  a  tempera- 
ture of  240  degrees,  and  so  on :  as  the  pressure  in- 
creases, the  temperature  of  water  and  steam  rises. 
But  under  all  circumstances,  while  the  water  and 
steam  remain  in  the  same  vessel,  their  temperature  is 
the  same.  This  is  an  acknowledged  law  of  physical 
science ;  yet  every  locomotive  engineer  of  reflection, 
who  has  run  on  a  hilly  road,  knows  that  circumstances 
daily  happen  where  the  law  does  not  hold  good. 

CAREFUL    FEEDING   AND    FIRING    PRESERVE    BOILERS. 

A  case  where  the  conservative  effect  of  careful  firing 
and  feeding  was  strikingly  illustrated  once  came  under 
the  author's  notice.  During  the  busiest  part  of  the 


GETTING    UP    THE   HILL.  6/ 

season,  the  fire-box  of  a  freight  engine  belonging  to  a 
Western  road  became  so  leaky  that  the  engine  was 
really  unfit  for  service.  Engines,  like  individuals, 
soon  lose  their  reputation  if  they  fail  to  perform  their 
required  duties  for  any  length  of  time.  This  engine, 
"29,"  soon  became  the  aversion  of  trainmen.  The 
loquacious  brakeman,  who  can  instruct  every  railroad- 
man how  to  conduct  his  business,  but  is  lame  respect- 
ing his  own  work,  got  presently  to  making  big  stories 
out  of  the  amazing  quantity  of  water  and  coal  that 
"29"  could  get  away  with,  and  how  many  trains  she 
would  hold  in  the  course  of  a  trip.  The  road  was 
suffering  from  a  plethora  of  freight  and  extreme  scar- 
city of  engines ;  and  on  this  account  the  management 
was  reluctant  to  take  this  weakling  into  the  shop.  So 
the  master  mechanic  turned  "29"  over  to  Engineer 
Macleay,  who  was  running  on  a  branch  where  delays 
were  not  likely  to  hold  many  trains.  Mac  deliberated 
about  taidng  his  "time"  in  preference  to  the  engine, 
which  others  had  rejected,  but  finally  concluded  to 
give  the  bad  one  a  fair  trial.  The  first  trip  convinced 
the  somewhat  observant  engineer  that  the  tender  fire- 
box was  peculiarly  susceptible  to  the  free  use  of  the 
pump,  and  to  sudden  changes  of  the  fire's  intensity  of 
heat.  So  he  directed  the  fireman  to  fire  as  evenly  as 
possible,  never  to  permit  the  grates  to  get  bare  enough 
to  let  cold  air  pass  through,  to  keep  the  door  closed 
except  when  firing,  to  avoid  violent  shaking  of  the 
grates,  and  never  to  throw  more  than  two  or  three 
shovelfuls  of  coal  into  the  fire-box  at  one  time.  His 
own  method  was,  to  feed  with  persistent  regularity,  to 


68  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  XUNNfNG. 

go  twice  over  heavy  parts  of  the  division  in  preference 
to  distressing  the  engine  by  letting  the  water  get  low, 
and  then  filling  up  rapidly.  This  system  soon  began 
to  tell  on  the  improved  condition  of  the  fire-box.  The 
result  was  that  within  a  month  after  taking  the  en- 
gine, Mac  was  pulling  full  trains  on  time ;  and  this 
he  continued  to  do  for  five  months,  till  it  was  found 
convenient  to  take  the  engine  in  for  rebuilding. 

OPERATING   THE    DAMPERS. 

According  to  the  mechanical  dictionary,  a  damper 
is  a  device  for  regulating  the  admission  of  air  to  a 
furnace,  with  which  the  fire  can  be  stimulated,  or  the 
draught  cut  off,  when  necessary.  Some  runners  regard 
locomotive  dampers  in  a  very  different  light.  They 
seem  to  think  the  openings  to  the  ash-pan  are  merely 
holes  made  to  let  air  in,  and  ashes  out ;  that  doors  are 
placed  upon  them,  which  troublesome  rules  require  to 
be  closed  at  certain  points  of  the  road  to  prevent 
causing  fires.  Those  who  have  made  their  business  a 
study,  however,  understand  that  locomotive  dampers 
are  as  useful,  when  properly  managed,  as  are  the 
dampers  of  the  base-burner  which  cheers  their  homes 
in  winter  weather.  To  effect  perfect  combustion  in 
the  fire-box,  a  certain  quantity  of  oxygen,  one  of  the 
constituents  of  common  air,  is  required  to  mix  with 
the  carbon  and  carbureted  hydrogen  of  the  coal.  The 
combination  takes  place  in  certain  fixed  quantities. 
If  the  quantity  of  air  admitted  be  deficient,  a  gas  of 
inferior  calorific  power  will  be  generated.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  the  air-supply  is  in  excess  of  that 


GETTING    UP    THE  HILL.  69 

needed  for  combustion,  the  surplus  affects  the  steam- 
producing  capabilities  of  the  fire  injuriously;  since  it 
increases  the  speed  of  the  gases,  lessening  the  time 
they  are  in  contact  with  the  water-surface,  and  a 
violent  rush  of  air  reduces  the  temperature  of  portions 
of  the  fire-box  below  the  heat  at  which  carbureted 
hydrogen  burns. 

LOSS    OF   HEAT   THROUGH    EXCESS    OF   AIR. 

In  the  fire-boxes  of  American  engines,  where  double 
dampers  are  the  rule,  far  more  loss  of  heat  is  occa- 
sioned by  excess  of  air  than  there  is  waste  of  fuel 
through  the  gases  not  receiving  their  natural  supply 
of  oxygen.  The  blast  from  the  nozzles  creates  an  im- 
petuous draught  through  the  grates ;  and  when  to  this 
is  added  the  rapid  currents  of  air  impelled  into  the 
open  ash-pan  by  the  violent  motion  of  the  train,  the 
fire-box  is  found  to  be  the  center  of  a  furious  wind- 
storm. The  excess  of  this  storm  can  be  regulated  by 
keeping  the  front  damper  closed,  and  letting  the 
engine  draw  its  supply  of  air  through  the  back  damper. 
When  the  fire  begins  to  get  dirty,  and  the  air-passages 
between  the  grates  become  partly  choked,  the  forward 
damper  can  be  opened  with  advantage.  So  long  as  an 
engine  steams  freely  with  the  front  damper  closed,  it 
is  an  indication  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  keeping 
it  open.  With  vicious,  heavy  firing,  all  the  air  that 
can  be  injected  into  the  fire-box  is  needed  to  effect 
indifferently  complete  combustion ;  and  the  man  who 
follows  this -wasteful  practice  cannot  get  too  much  air 
through  the  fire.  Consequently,  it  is  only  with 


70  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

moderately  light  firing  that  regulation  of  draught  can 
be  practiced.  Running  with  the  front  damper  open 
all  the  time  is  hard  on  the  bottom  part  of  the  fire-box, 
and  the  ever-varying  attrition  of  cold  wind  is  respon- 
sible for  many  a  leaky  mud-ring. 

LOSS    OF    HEAT    FROM    BAD    DAMPERS. 

In  Europe,  where  far  more  attention  has  been  de- 
voted to  economy  of  fuel  than  has  been  bestowed 
upon  the  matter  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  locomotives 
are  provided  with  ash-pans  that  are  practically  air- 
tight, and  the  damper-doors  are  made  to  close  the 
openings.  In  many  instances,  the  levers  that  operate 
the  dampers  have  notched  sectors,  so  that  the  quan- 
tity of  air  admitted  may  equal  the  necessities  of  the 
fire.  European  locomotives,  as  a  rule,  show  a  better 
record  in  the  use  of  their  fuel  than  is  found  in  Ameri- 
can practice;  and  a  high  percentage  of  the  saving  is 
due  to  the  superior  damper  arrangements. 

Imagine  the  trouble  and  expense  there  would  be  with 
a  kitchen  stove  that  had  no  appliance  for  closing  the 
draught!  Yet  some  of  our  locomotive-builders  turn 
out  their  engines  with  practically  no  means  of  regulat- 
ing the  flow  of  air  beneath  the  fire. 


CHAPTER    VII. 
FINISHING    THE   TRIP. 

RUNNING   OVER  ORDINARY   TRACK. 

THE  hill  which  our  train  encounters  nearly  at  the 
beginning  of  the  journey  is  the  hardest  part  of  the 
division.  The  style  in  which  it  is  ascended  shows 
what  kind  of  an  engine  pulls  the  train,  and  it  tests  in 
a  searching  manner  the  ability  of  the  engineer.  Our 
engine  has  got  over  the  summit  successfully;  and  the 
succeeding  descent  is  accomplished  with  comfort  to 
the  engine,  and  security  to  the  train.  And  so  the  rest 
of  the  trip  goes  on.  The  train  speeds  merrily  along 
through  green,  rolling  prairies,  away  past  leafy  wood- 
lands and  flowery  meadows:  it  cuts  a  wide  swath 
through  long  cornfields,  startles  into  wakefulness  the 
denizens  of  sleek  farmhouses,  and  raises  a  rill  of  ex- 
citement as  it  bounds  through  quiet  villages.  But 
every  change  of  scene,  every  varied  state  of  road-bed, 
— level  track,  ascending  or  descending  grade, — is  pre- 
pared for  in  advance  by  our  enginemen.  Their  engine 
is  found  in  proper  time  for  each  occasion,  as  it  requires 
the  exertion  of  great  power,  or  permits  the  conservation 
of  the  machine's  energy.  Over  long  stretches  of  un- 

71 


72  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

dulatory  track  the  train  speeds ;  each  man  attending 
to  his  work  so  closely  that  the  index  of  the  steam- 
gauge  is  almost  stationary,  and  the  water  does  not 
vary  an  inch  in  the  glass.  This  is  accomplished  by 
regular  firing  and  uniform  boiler-feeding,  two  oper- 
ations which  must  go  together  to  produce  creditable 
results. 

STOPPING-PLACES. 

There  are  few  stops  to  be  made,  and  these  are  mostly 
at  water-stations.  Here  the  fireman  is  ready  to  take 
in  water  with  the  least  possible  delay;  and,  while  he  is 
doing  so,  the  engineer  hurries  around  the  engine,  feel- 
ing every  box  and  bearing,  and  dropping  a  fresh  sup- 
ply of  oil  where  necessary.  And,  while  going  thus 
around,  he  glances  searchingly  over  the  engine,  his 
eye  seeking  to  detect  absent  nuts,  or  missing  bolts 
or  pins :  anything  wrong  may  now  be  observed  and 
remedied. 

At  the  coaling-stations  the  fireman  finds  time  to 
rake  out  the  ash-pan,  and  the  engineer  bestows  upon 
the  engine  and  tender  a  leisurely  inspection  besides 
oiling  around. 

KNOWLEDGE    OF   TRAIN-RIGHTS. 

Next  to  studying  the  idiosyncrasies  of  his  engine, 
our  model  engineer  prides  himself  on  his  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  details  of  the  time-table.  The 
practice  becoming  so  common  on  our  best-regulated 
railroads,  of  examining  candidates  for  promotion  to  the 
position  of  engineer  on  their  knowledge  of  the  time- 


FINISHING    THE    TRIP.  73 

table,  has  a  very  salutary  effect  upon  aspiring  firemen, 
and  induces  them  to  acquire  familiarity  with  the  rules 
governing  train-service,  which  they  never  forget. 

Our  engineer  is  well  posted  on  all  the  rules  relating 
to  the  movement  of  trains;  his  mind's  eye  can  glance 
over  the  division,  and  note  meeting  or  passing  points; 
and  the  relative  rights  of  each  train  stand  blazoned 
forth  in  bold  relief  before  his  mental  vision.  This 
knowledge  regulates  his  conduct  while  nearing  sta- 
tions ;  for,  although  every  stopping-point  is  ap- 
proached cautiously,  those  places  where  trains  may  be 
expected  to  be  found  are  run  into  with  vigilant  care- 
fulness, the  train  being  under  perfect  control.  De- 
pending blindly  upon  conductors  and  brakemen  to 
keep  safe  control  of  the  train  at  dangerous  points  is 
opening  the  gate  of  trouble.  An  engineer  is  jointly 
responsible  with  the  conductor  for  the  safety  of  his 
train,  and  he  should  make  certain  that  every  precau- 
tion is  taken  to  get  over  the  road  without  accident. 

On  some  roads  the  rules  require  the  engineer  to 
show  his  train-orders  to  the  fireman.  No  rule  ought 
to  be  necessary  to  insure  this  practice  being  regularly 
followed.  Two  heads  are  better  than  one  when  mem- 
ory of  where  trains  are  to  be  met  is  concerned.  Not 
a  few  engineers  have  escaped  forgetting  train-orders 
by  showing  them  to  the  fireman. 

PRECAUTIONS    TO     BE     OBSERVED     IN     APPROACHING 
AND     PASSING    STATIONS. 

Running  past  stations  where  trains  are  standing  side- 
tracked, requires  to  be  done  with  special  care,  particu- 


74  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

larly  in  the  case  of  passenger  trains;  for,  at  such 
points,  there  is  danger  of  persons  getting  injured  by 
stepping  inadvertently  past  a  car  or  a  building,  in 
front  of  a  moving  train.  This  peril  is  guarded  against 
by  reducing  the  speed  as  far  as  practicable,  after 
whistling  to  warn  all  concerned,  by  ringing  the  engine- 
bell  and  keeping  a  sharp  lookout  from  the  cab. 

THE    BEST    RULES    MUST   BE    SUPPLEMENTED    BY 
GOOD   JUDGMENT. 

Rules  framed  by  the  officers  of  our  railways  for  the 
guidance  of  employe's  are  always  safe  to  follow  as  far 
as  they  go,  and  neglect  of  their  behests  will  soon  en- 
tail disaster.  But  circumstances  sometimes  arise  in 
train-service  to  which  no  rule  applies,  and  the  men  in 
charge  must  follow  the  dictates  of  their  judgment. 
This  happens  often,  especially  on  new  roads ;  and  the 
men  who  prove  themselves  capable  of  wrestling  suc- 
cessfully with  unusual  occurrences,  of  overcoming  dif- 
ficulties suddenly  encountered,  are  nature's  own  rail- 
roaders. It  is  this  practice  of  acting  judiciously  and 
promptly,  without  the  aid  of  codified  directions,  which 
gives  to  American  railroadmen  their  striking  indi- 
viduality, known  to  the  men  of  no  other  nation  fol- 
lowing the  same  calling.  European  railway  servants 
carry  ponderous  books  of  "rules  and  regulations"  in 
their  pockets,  and  these  rules  are  expected  to  furnish 
guidance  for  every  contingency ;  so,  when  an  engine- 
driver  or  guard  gets  into  an  unusual  dilemma,  he 
turns  over  the  pages  of  his  rule-book  for  counsel  and 
direction.  The  American  engineer  or  conductor  under 


FINISHING    THE    TRIP.  75 

similar  circumstances   takes   the  safe   side,   and  goes 
ahead. 

OPERATING   SINGLE   TRACKS    SAFELY. 

For  many  years  to  come  the  great  majority  of  our 
railroads  will  be  single  tracks,  as  they  now  are.  The 
operating  of  single-track  roads  is  only  done  safely  by 
the  exercise  of  unsleeping  vigilance  on  the  part  of  all 
concerned  in  the  movement  of  trains.  Delays  some- 
times occur  through  mistaken  excess  of  caution,  as  in 
the  case  of  an  engineer  in  Iowa,  who  mistook  the  lan- 
tern of  a  benighted  farmer  for  the  headlight  of  an 
approaching  train,  and  backed  to  the  nearest  telegraph- 
station  ;  or  that  of  a  conductor  in  Michigan,  who  side- 
tracked his  train  to  let  the  evening  star  pass.  Such 
mistakes  make  pleasantry  among  trainmen,  but  all 
acknowledge  that  it  is  better  to  err  on  the  safe  side 
than  to  run  recklessly  into  danger. 

CAUSES   OF   ANXIETY    TO    ENGINEERS. 

The  anxiety  upon  the  part  of  the  engineer  is  not 
occasioned  by  fear  for  his  personal  safety,  though  that 
doubtless  has  its  influence;  but  it  is  the  knowledge, 
born  of  observation  and  experience,  that  blind  adher- 
ence to  orders,  no  matter  what  'the  circumstances,  or 
from  whom  emanating,  may  not  only  cost  him  his  life, 
but  may  involve  the  lives  of  many  others, — the  lives 
of  people  believing  in  him,  and  trusting  in  him,  and 
as  unconscious  of  danger  as  they  are  helpless  to  avoid 
it. 


?6  LOtOMOTTVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

ACQUAINTANCE   WITH   THE    ROAD. 

Next  in  importance  to  knowing  well  how  to  manage 
the  engine,  and  intimate  familiarity  with  the  time-table 
and  its  rules,  comes  acquaintance  with  the  road.  In 
the  light  of  noonday,  when  all  nature  seems  at  peace, 
when  every  object  can  be  seen  distinctly,  the  work  of 
running  over  a  division  is  as  easy  as  child's  play.  But 
when  thick  darkness  covers  the  earth,  when  the  fitful 
gleam  of  the  headlight  shines  on  a  mass  of  rain,  so 
dense  that  it  seems  like  a  water  wall  rising  from  the 
pilot,  or  when  blinding  clouds  of  snow  obliterate  every 
bush  and  bank,  it  is  important  that  the  engineer  should 
know  every  object  of  the  wayside.  A  person  unac- 
customed to  the,  business,  who  rides  on  a  locomotive 
tearing  through  the  darkness  on  a  stormy  night,  sees 
nothing  around  but  a  black  chaos  made  fitfully  awful 
by  the  glare  from  the  fire-box  door.  But  even  in  the 
wildest  tempest,  when  elemental  strife  drowns  the 
noise  of  the  engine,  the  experienced  engineer  attends 
to  his  duties  calmly  and  collectedly.  A  cutting  or 
embankment,  a  culvert  or  crossing,  a  tree  or  bush,  is 
sufficient  to  mark  the  location ;  and  every  mile  gives 
landmarks  trifling  to  the  uninitiated,  but  to  the  trained 
eye  significant  as  a  lighted  signal.  One  indicates  the 
place  to  shut  off  steam  for  a  station,  another  tells  that 
the  train  is  approaching  a  stiff-pull  grade ;  and  the 
enginemen  act  on  the  knowledge  imparted.  And  so 
the  round  of  the  work  goes.  Working  and  watching 
keep  the  train  speeding  on  its  journey.  Nothing  is 
left  to  chance  or  luck :  every  movement,  every  varia- 


FINISHING    THE    TRIP.  77 

tion  of  speed,  is  the  effect  of  an  unseen  control.  As 
a  stately  ship  glides  on  its  voyage  obedient  as  a  thing 
of  life  to  the  turn  of  the  steersman's  wheel ;  so  the 
king  of  inland  transportation,  the  locomotive  engine, 
the  monarch  of  speed,  the  ideal  of  power  in  motion, 
pursues  its  way,  annihilating  space,  binding  nations 
into  a  harmonious  unit,  and  all  the  time  submissive  to 
the  lightest  touch  of  the  engineer's  hand. 

To  get  a  freight  train  promptly  over  the  road  day 
after  day,  or  night  after  night,  an  engineer  must  know 
the  road  intimately,  not  only  marking  the  places  where 
steam  must  be  shut  off  for  stations  or  grades,  but  every 
sag  and  rise  must  be  engraved  on  his  memory.  Then 
he  will  be  prepared  to  take  advantage  of  slight  descents 
to  assist  in  getting  him  over  short  pulls,  where,  other- 
wise, he  would  lose  speed ;  and  the  same  knowledge 
will  avail  him  to  avoid  breaking  the  train  in  two  while 
passing  over  the  short  depressions  in  the  track's  align- 
ment, called  sags  in  the  West. 

FINAL   DUTIES    OF   THE   TRIP. 

With  an  engine  properly  fired,  there  is  but  little 
special  preparation  needed  for  closing 'up  the  trip  with- 
out waste  of  fuel.  The  fire  is  regulated  so  that  a  head 
of  steam  will  be  retained  sufficient  to  take  the  engine 
into  the  round-house  after  the  fire-box  is  cleaned  out. 
In  drawing  the  fire,  the  blower  should  be  used  as  spar- 
ingly as  possible ;  for  its  blast  rushes  a  volume  of  cold 
air  through  the  flues,  which  is  apt  to  start  leaks.  Many 
engineers  find  flues,  or  stay-bolts,  which  were  dry  at 
the  end  of  one  trip,  leaking  when  the  engine  is  taken 


?8  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

out  for  the  next  run.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  the 
cause  has  been  too  much  blower.  So  soon  as  the  ash- 
pan  is  cleaned  out  the  dampers  should  be  closed  so 
that  the  fire-box  and  flues  may  cool  down  gradually. 

PULLING   PASSENGER   TRAINS, 

The  enginemen  who  acquire  the  art  of  taking  a  fast 
freight  train  over  the  road  on  time  will  experience  no 
difficulty  in  handling  passenger  trains  after  a  little  ex- 
perience. All  the  rules  that  apply  to  handling  freight 
trains  are  suitable  for  passenger  trains  with  very  little 
modification. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 
HARD-STEAMING  ENGINES. 

IMPORTANCE    OF   LOCOMOTIVES    STEAMING   FREELY. 

As  the  purpose  of  a  locomotive  engine  attached  to 
a  train  is  to  take  that  train  along  on  time,  and  as 
engines  are  generally  rated  to  pull  cars  according  to 
their  size,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  they 
should  make  steam  freely  enough  to  keep  up  an  even 
pressure  on  the  boiler  while  the  cylinders  are  drawing 
the  supply  necessary  to  maintain  speed.  A  locomo- 
tive that  does  not  generate  steam  as  fast  as  the  cylin- 
ders use  it  is  like  a  lame  horse  on  the  road,  a  torture 
to  itself  and  to  every  one  connected  with  it. 

ESSENTIALS   FOR   GOOD-STEAMING   ENGINES. 

To  steam  freely,  an  engine  must  be  built  according 
to  sound  mechanical  principles.  The  locomotives 
constructed  by  our  best  manufacturers,  the  engines 
which  keep  the  trains  on  our  first-class  roads  moving 
like  clock-work,  are  designed  according  to  proportions 
which  experience  has  demonstrated  to  be  productive 
of  the  most  satisfactory  results  for  power  and  speed, 
combined  with  economy.  There  are  certain  charac- 

79 


8o  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

teristics  common  to  all  good  makers.  The  valve- 
motion  is  planned  to  apply  steam  to  the  pistons  at 
nearly  boiler-pressure,  with  the  means  of  cutting  off 
early  in  the  stroke,  and  retaining  the  steam  long 
enough  in  the  cylinders  to  obtain  tangible  benefits 
from  its  expansive  principle.  Liberal  heating-surface 
is  provided  in  the  boiler,  its  extent  being  regulated  by 
the  size  of  the  cylinders  to  be  supplied  with  steam. 
With  a  good  valve-motion,  and  plenty  of  heating- 
surface  served  with  the  products  of  good  coal,  an 
engine  must  steam  freely  if  it  is  not  prevented  from 
doing  so  by  malconstruction  or  adjustment  of  minor 
parts,  or  by  the  wasting  of  heat  in  the  boiler  or  in  the 
cylinders. 

An  engine  of  that  kind  will  steam  if  it  is  managed 
with  any  degree  of  skill.  But  as  the  best  lathe  ever 
constructed  will  turn  out  poor  work  under  the  hands 
of  a  blundering  machinist,  so  the  best  of  locomotives 
will  make  a  ba'd  record  when  run  without  care  or  skill. 
Regular  feeding — the  water  supplied  at  a  rate  to  equal 
the  quantity  evaporated,  which  will  maintain  a  nearly 
level  gauge — is  an  essential  point  in  successful  running. 
It  is  hardly  second  in  importance  to  skillful  firing. 

CAUSES    DETRIMENTAL   TO    MAKING    STEAM. 

When  an  engine  is  steaming  badly,  almost  the  first 
action  of  an  experienced  engineer  is  to  examine  the 
draught  appliances  in  the  smoke-box.  These  appli- 
ances are  designed  to  regulate  the  pull  of  the  draught 
upon  the  fire  so  that  the  gases  of  combustion  will  pass 
evenly  through  all  the  tubes,  and  to  prevent  the 


HARD-STEAMING   ENGINES.  8 1 

throwing  of  sparks.  The  two  duties  do  not  always 
harmonize,  and  the  deflector-plate  in  front  of  the 
tubes  is  frequently  set  more  with  a  view  to  the  pre- 
vention of  spark-throwing  than  to  the  regulating  of 
the  draught.  When  this,  is  done,  the  engine  will  not 
steam  freely.  A  medium  point  should  be  found  in 
which  the  draught  will  receive  no  more  interruption 
than  what  is  necessary  to  make  the  flow  of  the  gases 
uniform  through  the  tubes.  If  the  engine  is  fired 
properly  under  this  condition,  there  is  not  likely  to  be 
much  cause  for  complaint  from  spark-throwing. 

PETTICOAT-PIPE. 

The  petticoat-pipe  performs,  in  relation  to  draught, 
functions  of  a  similar  nature  to  those  performed 
by  the  tubes  of  an  injector  in  inducing  the  flow  of 
water ;  and  its  efficiency  is  reduced  by  the  same 
disturbing  agencies.  This  pipe  must  have  a  size  in 
proportion  to  the  diameter  of  the  stack,  and  it  must 
be  set  so  that  it  shall  deliver  the  exhaust-steam  to 
make  a  straight  shoot  through  the  stack.  When 
these  conditions  are  properly  arranged,  the  exhaust- 
steam  goes  through  the  stack  like  a  piston,  leaving 
a  vacuum  behind.  The  petticoat-pipe  is  a  device 
confined  mainly  to  American  locomotives;  and  its 
purpose  is  the  same  as  the  deflector  in  engines  hav- 
ing open  stacks:  to  regulate  the  draught  in  the 
smoke-box  so  that  the  currents  of  hot  gases  are  drawn 
uniformly  through  the  flues,  the  top,  bottom,  and 
sides  getting  about  the  same  heating  intensity  as 
passes  through  the  middle  rows.  The  opportunity 


82  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

for  the  exhibition  of  good  firing  depends  greatly  upon 
the  petticoat-pipe  being  constructed  properly,  and 
secured  at  the  right  position.  It  is  impracticable  to 
lay  down  a  positive  rule  for  dimensions  and  best  posi- 
tion of  these  pipes,  for  engines  of  the  same  pro- 
portions frequently  require  different  petticoat-pipe 
arrangements  to  make  them  steam  freely.  When 
engines  with  sufficient  heating-surface  do  not  steam 
freely,  the  trouble  nearly  always  lies  in  malpropor- 
tioned  or  badly  set  petticoat-pipes,  or  badly  set 
deflectors.  Sometimes  a  very  small  change  in  the 
position  of  this  deflector  or  pipe  will  have  a  wonderful 
effect  upon  the  steaming  qualities  of  the  engine.  If 
the  pipe  is  set  too  high,  most  of  the  draught  will  pass 
through  the  lower  flues ;  and  the  upper  rows  will  be- 
come filled  with  soot,  and  many  of  them  are  likely  to 
get  choked  with  fine  ashes,  which  remains  there  for 
want  of  draught  to  force  it  out.  Should  it  be  too  low, 
the  bottom  rows  of  flues  will  suffer  from  the  effect  of 
defective  draught.  When  the  petticoat-pipe  is  just 
right,  the  flues  will  look  uniformly  clean  inside,  which 
can  be  ascertained  by  a  close  inspection  of  the  smoke- 
box.  In  addition  to  making  the  engine  lose  the  ben- 
efit of  its  full  heating-surface,  a  badly  arranged  petti- 
coat-pipe concentrates  the  draught  so  much  that  it 
tears  the  fire  to  pieces  at  one  particular  point ;  and  the 
only  resource  for  the  man  who  wishes  to  keep  up 
steam  is  to  fire  heavily,  thereby  preventing  cold  air 
from  being  drawn  through  the  crevices. 


HARD-STEAMING   ENGINES.  83 

THE    SMOKE-STACK. 

The  ordinary  purpose  of  the  smoke-stack  to  convey 
the  smoke  and  exhausted  gases  to  the  atmosphere.  If 
it  is  intended  to  perform  its  functions  in  a  straightfor- 
ward manner,  it  is  made  several  inches'  less  diameter 
than  the  cylinders,  and  its  highest  altitude  rises  from 
14  to  15  feet  above  the  rail.  The  stack  is  a  simple 
enough  article  to  look  at,  yet  a  vast  amount  of  inven- 
tive genius  has  been  expended  upon  attempts  to  ex- 
pand its  natural  functions.  Attempts  have  been  made 
to  utilize  it  as  an  apparatus  for  consuming  smoke,  and 
hundreds  of  patents  hang  upon  it  as  a  spark-arrester. 
Patentees,  in  pushing  their  hobby,  seem  occasionally 
to  forget  that  a  locomotive  requires  some  draught,  as 
a  means  of  generating  steam ;  and  stacks  are  fre- 
quently so  hampered  with  patent  spark-arresters  that 
the  means  of  making  steam  are  seriously  curtailed. 
Were  it  not  for  the  danger  of  raising  fires  by  spark- 
throwing,  it  would  be  more  economical  to  use  engines 
with  clear  smoke-stacks;  and  the  extended  front  end, 
with  open  stack,  is  a  good  move  in  this  direction. 

OBSTRUCTIONS   TO    DRAUGHT. 

Every  obstruction  to  free  draught  entails  the  use  of 
strong  artificial  means  to  overcome  it.  The  usual  re- 
sort is  contracted  nozzles,  which  induce  a  sharp  blast, 
and  use  up  more  fuel  than  would  be  required  with  an 
open  passage  to  the  atmosphere.  Among  the  obsta- 
cles to  free  steaming,  that  come  under  the  category  of 
obstructed  draught,  may  be  placed  a  wide  cone  fast- 


84  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

ened  low,  and  netting  with  fine  meshes.  When  the 
draught-passage  is  interrupted  to  a  pernicious  extent 
by  spark-arresting  appliances,  their  effects  can  be  per- 
ceived on  the  fire  when  steam  is  shut  off;  for  the  flame 
and  smoke  prefer  the  fire-box  door  to  the  stack  as  a 
means  of  exit.  Sometimes  steam-making  is  hindered 
by  the  netting  getting  gummed  up  with  spent  lubri- 
cants and  dirt  from  the  cylinders.  Cases  occur  where 
this  gum  has  to  be  burnt  off  before  free  draught  can 
be  obtained.  Waste  soaked  with  coal-oil  will  gener- 
ally burn  off  the  objectionable  coating. 

THE    EXTENDED    SMOKE-BOX. 

By  this  arrangement  the  .spark-arresting  device  is 
transferred  from  the  smoke-stack  to  the  smoke-box, 
and  the  exhaust-steam  escapes  direct  to  the  atmos- 
phere, without'  meeting  obstruction  from  a  cone  or 
netting.  The  netting  is  generally  an  oblong  screen, 
extending  from  above  the  upper  row  of  flues  to  the 
top  of  the  extended  smoke-box,  some  distance  ahead 
of  the  stack.  This  presents  a  wide  area  of  netting  for 
the  fire-gases  to  pass  through.  The  draught  through 
the  flues  is  regulated  by  an  apron  or  diaphragm-plate, 
extending  downwards  at  an  acute  angle  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  flue-sheet.  With  the  long  exhaust- 
pipe  used  with  the  extended  smoke-box,  the  tendency 
of  the  exhaust  is  to  draw  the  fire-gases  through  the 
upper  row  of  flues.  The  diaphragm-plate  performs 
the  same  duties  here,  of  regulating  the  draught 
through  the  flues  equally,  as  the  petticoat-pipe  does 
with  the  diamond-stack.  It  is  of  great  consequence, 


HARD-STEAMING   ENGINES.  85 

for  the  successful  working  of  the  engine,  that  the 
draught  should  be  properly  regulated :  otherwise  there 
will  be  trouble  for  want  of  steam. 

When  an  engine  having  an  extended  smoke-box 
does  not  steam  properly,  experiments  should  be  made 
with  the  diaphragm  fastened  at  different  angles,  till 
the  point  is  reached  where  equal  draught  through  the 
flues  is  obtained.  Closing  the  nozzles,  as  a  means  of 
improving  the  steaming  of  such  an  engine,  is  certain 
to  make  matters  worse. 

STEAM-PIPES    LEAKING. 

The  blowing  of  steam-pipe  joints  in  the  smoke-box 
is  very  disastrous  to  the  steaming  qualities  of  a  loco 
motive.  This  has  a  double  action  against  keeping  up 
steam.  All  that  escapes  by  leaking  is  so  much 
wasted,  and  its  presence  in  the  smoke-box  interrupts 
the  draught. 

If  the  steam-pipe  joints  are  leaking  badly,  they  can 
be  heard  when  the  fire-door  is  open  and  the  engine 
working  steam.  Some  experienced  engineers  can  de- 
tect the  action  of  leaky  steam-pipe  joints  on  the  fire ; 
but  the  safest  way  to  locate  this  trouble  is  by  opening 
the  smoke-box  door,  and  giving  the  engine  steam. 

DEFECTS    OF    GRATES. 

Grates  that  are  fitted  so  close  as  to  curtail  the  free 
admission  of  air  below  the  fire  prevent  an  engine  from 
steaming  freely.  The  effect  of  this  will  be  most  ap- 
parent when  the  fire  begins  to  get  dirty.  The  ten- 
dency of  locomotive-designers  for  many  years  has  been 


86  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

to  increase  the  grate  area  as  much  as  possible,  so  that 
sufficient  air  might  easily  be  admitted  to  supply  the 
combustion  needs  of  heavy  working  engines.  In  many 
cases  small  grates  might  be  made  more  efficient  if  they 
had  a  greater  proportion  of  air-opening  and  less  solid 
cast  iron.  I  once  knew  of  an  engine's  steaming  being 
very  seriously  impaired  by  two  or  three  fingers  in  one 
section  of  grate  being  broken  off.  The  engine 
steamed  well  with  a  light  fire,  till,  in  dumping  the  fire 
at  the  end  of  a  journey,  the  men  knocked  some  of  the 
fingers  off.  Next  trip  it  seemed  a  different  engine. 
Nothing  but  heavy  firing  would  keep  up  an  approach 
at  working-pressure.  I  experimented  with  the  petti- 
coat-pipe without  satisfaction,  assured  myself  that  no 
leaks  existed  among  the  pipes;  the  stack,  with  its 
connections,  was  faultless;  and  the  engineer  was 
puzzled.  The  defect  was  discovered  by  watching  the 
effect  of  the  blast  upon  the  fire.  Signs  of  air-drawing 
were  often  to  be  seen  at  the  point  where  the  broken 
fingers  were.  This  was  where  the  mischief  lay.  Too 
much  cold  air  came  through,  unless  the  opening  were 
bedded  over  by  a  heavy  fire. 

A  drop-grate  that  did  not  close  properly  had  a  sim- 
ilar effect  upon  another  engine  which  came  under  the 
author's  notice  ;  and  a  change,  which  shut  the  opening, 
effected  a  perfect  remedy. 

TEMPORARY    CURES    FOR   LEAKY   TUBES. 

Leaky  tubes  or  stay-bolts  may  sometimes  be  dried 
up  temporarily  by  putting  bran,  or  any  other  sub- 
stance containing  starch,  in  the  feed-water.  Care 


HARD-STEAMINC   ENGINES.  87 

must  be  taken  not  to  use  this  remedy  too  liberally, 
or  it  will  cause  foaming.  It  is,  however,  a  sort  of 
granger  resort,  and  is  seldom  tried  except  to  help  an 
engine  to  the  nearest  point  where  calking  can  be  done. 

GOOD    MANAGEMENT    MAKES    ENGINES    STEAM. 

No  engine  steams  so  freely  but  that  it  will  get  short 
under  mismanagement.  The  locomotive  is  designed 
to  generate  steam  from  water  kept  at  a  nearly  uniform 
temperature.  If  an  engine  is  pulling  a  train  which 
requires  the  evaporation  of  1,500  gallons  of  water 
each  hour,  there  will  be  25  gallons  pumped  into  the 
boiler  every  minute.  When  this  goes  on  regularly, 
all  goes  well;  but  if  the  runner  shuts  the  feed  for  five 
minutes,  and  then  opens  it  to  allow  50  gallons  a  min-' 
ute  to  pass  through  the  pump,  the  best  engine  going 
will  show  signs  of  distress.  Where  this  fluctuating 
style  of  feeding  is  indulged  in, — and  many  careless 
runners  are  habitually  guilty  of  such  practices, — no 
locomotive  can  retain  the  reputation  of  doing  its  work 
economically. 

INTERMITTENT    BOILER-FEEDING. 

The  case  of  Fred  Bemis,  who  still  murders  locomo- 
tives on  a  road  in  Indiana,  is  instructive  in  this  re- 
spect. Fred  was  originally  a  butcher;  and,  had  he 
stuck  to  the  cleaver,  he  might  have  passed  through 
life  as  a  fairly  intelligent  man.  But  he  was  seized 
with  the  ambition  to  go  railroading,  and  struck  a  job 
as  fireman.  He  never  displayed  any  aptitude  for  the 
business,  and  was  a  poor  firenjan  all  his  time  through 


88  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

sheer  indifference.  But  he  had  no  specially  bad 
habits;  and,  in  the  course  of  years,  he  was  "set  up." 
He  had  the  aptitude  for  seeing  a  thing  done  a  thou- 
sand times  without  learning  how  to  do  it.  All  his 
movements  with  an  engine  were  spasmodic.  Starting 
from  a  station  with  a  roaring  fire  and  full  boiler,  the 
next  stopping-point  loomed  ahead;  and  to  get  there 
as  soon  as  possible  was  his  only  thought.  He  would 
keep  the  reverse-lever  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
"corner,"  and  pound  the  engine  along.  The  pump 
would  be  shut  off  to  keep  the  steam  from  going  back 
too  fast,  till  the  water  became  low:  then  the  feed 
would  be  opened  wide,  and  the  steam  drowned  down. 
In  vain  a  heavy  fire  would  be  torn  to  pieces  by  vig- 
orous shaking  of  the  grates.  The  steam  would  not 
rally,  and  he  would  crawl  into  the  next  station  at  a 
wagon  pace.  A  laboring  blower  and  shaker-bar  would 
resuscitate  the  energies  of  the  engine  in  a  few  minutes 
if  the  flues  and  fire-box  were  not  leaking  too  badly, 
and  the  injector  would  provide  the  water  for  starting 
on ;  but  no  experience  of  delay  and  trouble  seemed 
capable  of  teaching  Bemis  the  lesson  how  to  work  the 
engine  properly.  He  soon  became  the  terror  of  train- 
men, and  the  boiler-makers  worked  incessantly  on  his 
fire-box.  But  he  is  still  there,  although  he  will  not 
make  an  engineer  if  he  runs  for  a  century. 

TOO    MUCH    PISTON    CLEARANCE. 

On  one  of  our  leading  railroads  a  locomotive  was 
rebuilt,  and  fitted  with  the  extension  smoke-box, 
which  was  an  experiment  for  that  road,  and  conse- 


HARD-STEAMING   ENGINES.  89 

quently  was  looked  upon  with  some  degree  of  distrust. 
When  the  engine  was  put  on  the  road,  it  was  found 
that  it  did  not  steam  satisfactorily.  Of  course,  it  was 
at  once  concluded  that  the  draught  arrangements  were 
to  blame ;  and  experiments  were  made,  with  the  view 
of  adjusting  the  flow  of  gases  through  the  tubes  to 
produce  better  results.  The  traveling  engineer  of  the 
road  had  charge  of  the  job,  and  he  proceeded  indus- 
triously to  work  at  locating  the  trouble.  He  tried 
everything  in  the  way  of  adjusting  the  smoke-box 
attachments  that  could  be  thought  of,  but  nothing 
that  was  done  improved  the  steaming  qualities  of  the 
engine.  He  then  proceeded  to  search  for  trouble  in 
some  other  direction.  The  result  of  his  examination 
was  the  discovery  that  the  engine  was  working  with 
three-fourth  inch  clearance  at  each  end  of  the  cylin- 
ders. This,  he  naturally  concluded,  entailed  a  serious 
waste  of  steam-  so  he  had  the  clearance  reduced  to 
one-fourth  inch.  When  the  engine  got  out  after  this 
change,  it  steamed  very  satisfactorily ,  and  the  exten- 
sion smoke-box  is  no  longer  in  disrepute  on  that  road. 
This  is  no  uncommon  cause  for  waste  of  steam.  In 
the  last  year  of  the  nineteenth  century,  I  knew  of  en- 
gines turned  out  by  a  first-class  locomotive  builder 
that  had  nearly  one  inch  piston  clearance  at  each  end 
of  the  cylinder. 

BADLY    PROPORTIONED    SMOKE-STACKS. 

Mistakes  are  frequently  made  when  the  open  stack 
is  adopted,  as  is  practicable  with  the  extended  smoke- 
box,  of  making  the  stack  too  wide  for  the  exhaust. 


gO  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

This  leads  to  deficiency  of  draught  for  the  steam  that 
is  passing  through  the  stack,  because  the  steam  does 
not  fill  the  stack  like  a  piston  creating  a  clean  vacuum 
behind  it.  Where  an  engine  with  an  extended  smoke- 
box  fails  to  steam  freely,  attention  should  be  directed 
to  the  proportion  of  stack  diameter  to  the  size  of  cyl- 
inders. 

THE   EXHAUST   NOZZLES. 

Locomotives,  with  their  limited  heating-surface,  re- 
quire intense  artificial  draught  to  produce  steam  rap- 
idly. Many  devices  have  been  tried  to  stimulate 
combustion,  and  generate  the  necessary  heat ;  but 
none  have  proved  so  effectual  and  reliable  as  con- 
tracted exhaust  orifices.  As  the  intermittent  rush  of 
steam  from  the  cylinders  to  the  open  atmosphere  es- 
capes from  the  contracted  openings  of  the  exhaust- 
pipe,  it  leaves  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  smoke-box, 
into  which  the  gases  from  the  fire-box  flow  with  amaz- 
ing velocity.  As  the  area  of  the  exhaust  nozzles  is 
increased,  the  pressure  of  steam  passing  through  be- 
comes lessened,  and  the  height  of  the  vacuum  in  the 
smoke-box  is  decreased.  Consequently,  with  wide 
nozzles,  the  velocity  of  the  gases  through  the  flues  is 
slower  than  with  narrow  ones ;  for  there  is  less  suction 
in  the  smoke-box  to  draw  out  the  fire  products:  and, 
where  the  gases  pass  slowly  through  the  flues,  there  is 
more  time  given  for  the  water  to  abstract  the  heat. 
Any  change  or  arrangement  which  will  retain  the 
gases  of  combustion  one-tenth  of  a  second  longer  in 
contact  with  the  heat-extracting  surfaces,  will  won- 


HARD-STEAMING  ENGINES.  9! 

derfully  increase  the  evaporative  service  of  a  ton  of 
coal.  Experiments  with  the  pyrometer,  an  instru- 
ment for  measuring  high  temperatures,  have  shown 
that  the  gases  passing  through  the  smoke-box  vary 
from  500  degrees  up  to  1000  degrees  Fahrenheit;  and 
they  show  that  increase  of  smoke-box  temperature 
keeps  pace  with  contracted  nozzles.  From  this,  en- 
gineers can  understand  why  lead  gaskets  do  not  keep 
blower-joints  in  a  smoke-box  tight,  the  melting-point 
of  lead  being  627  degrees. 

Inordinately  contracted  nozzles  are  objectionable  in 
another  way.  They  cause  back  pressure  in  the  cylin- 
ders, and  thereby  decrease  the  effective  duty  of  the 
steam.  Double  nozzles  are  preferable  to  single  ones; 
because  with  the  latter  the  steam  has  a  tendency  to 
shoot  over  into  the  other  cylinder,  and  cause  back- 
pressure. 

Engineers  anxious  to  make  a  good  record,  try  to 
run  with  nozzles  as  wide  as  possible.  Contracted 
nozzles  destroy  power  by  back  pressure :  they  tear  the 
fire  to  pieces  with  the  violent  blast,  and  they  hurry 
the  heat  through  the  flues  so  fast  that  its  temperature 
is  but  slightly  diminished  when  it  passes  into  the* 
atmosphere.  The  engineer  who,  by  intelligent  care, 
reduces  his  smoke-box  temperature  100  degrees, 
is  worthy  to  rank  as  a  master  in  his  calling. 

The  other  day  an  engineer  came  into  the  round- 
house, and  said,  "  You  had  better  put  3^-inch  nozzles 
in  my  engine:  I  think  she  will  get  along  with  that  in- 
crease of  size."  He  had  been  using  3j-inch  nozzles. 
The  change  was  accordingly  made.  When  he  re- 


92  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

turned  from  the  next  trip,  he  expressed  a  doubt  about 
the  advantage  of  the  change.  But  it  happened  that 
his  own  fireman  was  off,  and  a  strange  man  wras  sent 
out,  who,  although  a  good  fireman,  failed  to  keep  up 
steam  satisfactorily.  On  the  following  trip,  however, 
the  fireman  who  belonged  to  the  engine,  returned,  and 
found  no  difficulty  in  getting  all  the  steam  required. 
But  this  fireman  is  one  who  would  stand  far  up  among 
a  thousand  competitors.  Considerable  practice  and 
intelligent  thoughtfulness,  combined  with  unfailing 
industry,  have  developed  in  this  man  an  excellence  in 
fire  management  seldom  attained.  He  follows  a 
unique  system,  which  seems  his  own.  It  is  the 
method  of  firing  light  carried  to  perfection.  His  coal 
is  all  broken  down  fine,  and  lies  within  easy  reach. 
His  movements  are  cool  and  deliberate,  no  hurry,  no 
fuss.  When  he  opens  the  door,  his  loaded  shovel  is 
ready  to  deposit  its  cargo  over  the  spot  which  a  glance 
shows  him  to  be  the  thinnest  portion  of  the  fire.  On 
the  parts  of  the  run  where  the  most  steam  is  needed, 
he  fires  one  shovelful  at  brief  intervals,  keeping  it  up 
right  along.  In  this  way  the  steam  never  feels  the 
cooling  effect  of  fresh  fire,  for  the  contents  of  the  fire- 
box are  kept  nearly  uniform.  This  plan  is  the  near- 
est possible  approach  to  the  work  done  by  the  auto- 
matic stoker,  which  has  been  made  an  entire  success 
with  stationary  boilers  and  is  a  thorough  prevent! /e 
of  smoke. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
SHORTNESS  OF  WATER. 

TROUBLE   DEVELOPS   NATURAL   ENERGY. 

TROUBLE  and  affliction  are  known  to  have  a  purify- 
ing and  elevating  effect  upon  human  character ;  diffi- 
culties encountered  in  the  execution  of  work,  develop 
the  skill  of  the  true  artisan;  and  trouble  on  the  road, 
or  accidents  to  locomotives,  furnish  the  engineer  with 
opportunities  for  developing  natural  energy,  ingenuity, 
and  perseverance,  if  these  attributes  are  in  him,  or 
they  publish  to  his  employers  his  lack  of  these  impor- 
tant qualities. 

One  of  the  most  serious  sources  of  trouble  that  an 
engineer  can  meet  with  on  the  road,  is  shortness  of 
water. 

SHORTNESS    OF   WATER   A   SERIOUS    PREDICAMENT. 

Deficiency  of  steam  with  a  locomotive  that  is  ex- 
pected to  get  a  train  along  on  time,  is  a  very  trying 
condition  for  an  engineer  to  endure.  But  a  more 
trying  and  more  dangerous  ordeal,  is  want  of  water. 
Where  steam  is  employed  as  a  means  of  applying 
power,  water  must  be  kept  constantly  over  the  heat- 

93 


94  LOCOM07UVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

ing-surfaces  while  the  fire  is  incandescent,  or  their  de- 
struction is  inevitable.  With  a  boiler  which  evaporates 
water  rapidly,  and  in  such  large  quantities  as  that  of 
the  locomotive,  the  most  perfect  feeding  apparatus  is 
necessary.  Nearly  all  locomotives  are  well  supplied 
in  this  respect.  Good  injectors  provide  the  engineer 
with  excellent  appliances  for  feeding  the  boiler  under 
ordinary  circumstances.  But  conditions  sometimes 
occur  where  the  most  reliable  of  injectors  fail  to  force 
water  into  the  boiler. 

HOW    TO    DEAL   WITH    SHORTNESS    OF   WATER. 

When  from  any  cause  he  finds  the  boiler  getting 
short  of  water,  the  engineer  should  resort  to  all  known 
methods  within  his  power  to  overcome  the  difficulty, 
by  removing  the  obstacle  that  is  preventing  the  feed- 
ing apparatus  from  operating.  But,  while  doing  so, 
the  safety  of  his  fire-box  and  flues  should  not  be  over- 
looked for  a  moment.  The  utmost  care  must  be 
taken  to  quench  the  fire  before  the  water  gets  below 
the  crown-sheet.  This  can  be  performed  most  effect- 
ually by  knocking  the  fire  out ;  but  sometimes  the 
temporary  increase  of  heat,  occasioned  by  the  act  of 
drawing  the  fire,  is  undesirable;  and,  in  such  a  case, 
the  safest  plan  is  to  dampen  the  fire  by  throwing  wet 
earth,  or  fine  coal  saturated  with  water,  upon  it.  Or 
a  more  urgent  case  still  may  intervene,  when  drench- 
ing the  fire  with  water  is  the  only  means  of  saving  the 
sheets  from  destruction.  This  should  be  a  last  re- 
sort, however;  for  it  is  a  very  clumsy  way  of  saving 
the  fire-box,  and  is  liable  to  do  no  small  amount  of 


SHORTNESS   OF   WATER.  95 

mischief.  Cold  water  thrown  upon  hot  steel  sheets, 
causes  such  sudden  contraction,  that  cracks,  or  even 
rupture,  may  ensue. 

WATCHING   THE    WATER-GAUGES. 

As  "  burning  his  engine  "  is  the  greatest  disgrace 
that  can  professionally  befall  an  engineer,  every  man 
worthy  of  the  name  guards  against  a  possibility  of 
being  caught  short  of  water  unawares,  by  frequent 
testing  of  the  gauge-cocks.  It  is  not  enough  to  have 
a  good-working  water-glass.  If  an  engineer  is  am- 
bitious to  avoid  trouble,  he  runs  by  the  gauge-cocks, 
using  the  glass  as  an  auxiliary.  Careful  experiments 
have  demonstrated  the  fact  that  the  water  -  glass, 
working  properly,  is  a  more  certain  indication  of  the 
water-level  than  gauge-cocks;  for,  when  the  boiler  is 
dirty,  the  water  rises  above  its  natural  level,  and 
rushes  at  the  open  gauge-cock.  This  can  be  proved 
when  water  is  just  below  a  gauge-cock  level.  If  the 
cock  is  opened  slightly,  steam  alone  passes  out ;  but 
when  the  full  opening  is  made  water  comes.  But 
water  will  not  come  through  a  gauge-cock  unless  the 
water-level  is  in  its  proximity ;  and  an  engineer  can 
tell,  when  his  gauge  shows  a  mixture  of  steam,  that 
the  water  shown  is  not  to  be  relied  upon.  It  is  not 
"  solid."  On  the  other  hand,  a  water-glass  out  of 
order  sometimes  shows  a  full  head  of  water  when  the 
crown-sheet  is  red-hota 


^  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

WHAT    TO    DO    WHEN    THE   TENDER   IS    FOUND 
EMPTY    BETWEEN    STATIONS. 

The  most  natural  cause  for  injectors  ceasing  to 
work  is  absence  of  water  from  the  tender.  This  con- 
dition comes  round  on  the  road  occasionally,  where 
engineers  neglect  to  fill  up  at  water-stations,  or  where 
there  are  long  runs  between  points  of  water-supply. 
When  an  engineer  finds  himself  short  of  water,  and 
the  means  of  replenishing  his  tank  too  distant  to 
reach,  even  with  the  empty  engine,  he  should  bank 
or  smother  the  fire,  and  retain  sufficient  water  in  the 
boiler  to  raise  steam  on  when  he  has  been  assisted  to 
the  nearest  water  tank.  This  will  save  tedious  delay, 
especially  where  an  engine  has  no  pumps.  Occasion- 
ally, from  miscalculations  or  through  accidents,  the 
fire  has  to  be  quenched,  and  insufficient  water  is  left 
in  the  boiler  to  start  a  fire  on  safely.  In  this  event, 
buckets  can  be  resorted  to,  and  the  boiler  filled  at  the 
safety-valves,  should  there  be  no  assistance  or  means 
of  pumping  up.  Every  possible  means  should  be 
exhausted  to  get  the  engine  in  steam  before  a  runner 
requests  to  have  his  engine  towed  in  cold. 

A   TRYING    POSITION. 

I  once  knew  a  case  where  an  engineer  inadvertently 
passed  a  water-tank  without  filling  his  tender.  He 
had  a  heavy  train,  and  was  pushing  along  with  a  heavy 
fire,  on  a  severe,  frosty  night,  when  every  creek  and 
slough  by  the  wayside  was  lost  in  heavy  ice.  Pres- 
ently his  pump  stopped  working,  and  he  spent  some 


SHORTNESS   OF   WATER.  97 

time  trying  to  start  it  before  he  discovered  that  the 
tender  was  empty.  By  the  time  this  fact  became 
known,  his  boiler-water  was  low,  and  a  heavy  fire  kept 
the  steam  screaming  at  the  safety-valves.  He  had  no 
dump-grate,  and  the  fire  was  too  heavy  to  draw.  It 
seemed  a  clear  case  of  destroying  the  fire-box  and 
flues.  But  he  was  a  man  of  many  resources.  First, 
he  tried  to  get  water  through  the  gauge-cock — he  had 
only  one  gauge — to  quench  the  fire,  but  found  the 
plan  would  not  work.  Then  he  filled  up  the  fire-box 
nearly  to  the  crown-sheet  with  the  smallest  coal  on 
the  tender,  and  partly  smothered  the  fire.  He  then 
partly  opened  the  smoke-box  door,  and  started  for 
the  water-station.  After  getting  the  engine  going, 
he  hooked  the  reverse-lever  in  the  center  and  kept 
the  throttle  wide  open,  to  make  the  most  of  the 
steam-supply.  He  saved  his  engine. 

WATCHING   THE   STRAINERS. 

When  the  top  of  a  tank  is  in  bad  order  and  permits 
cinders  and  small  pieces  of  coal  to  fall  through  rivet- 
holes  or  through  seams,  the  engineer  may  look  out 
for  grief  with  his  pumps  or  injectors.  On  the  first 
signs  of  the  water  failing,  he  should  examine  the 
strainers;  and  he  will  probably  find  that  these  copper 
perforations,  which  stand  like  wardens  guarding  the 
safety  of  the  pumps  and  injectors,  have  accumulated 
a  mass  of  cinders  that  obstructs  the  flow  of  the  water. 


93  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

INJECTORS. 

Although  the  injector  is  not  theoretically  so  efficient 
as  a  good  pump,  practically  it  has  proved  itself  the 
best  means  of  feeding  water  to  locomotive  boilers  that 
has  ever  been  tried.  When  a  well-made  injector  is 
used  regularly,  it  is  more  reliable  than  any  form  of 
pump,  is  more  easily  examined  and  repaired  when  it 
gets  out  of  order,  is  less  liable  to  freeze  or  to  sustain 
damage  from  accidental  causes,  and  it  regulates  the 
quantity  of  water  required  as  well  as  the  ordinary 
pump,  and  better  than  any  pump  actuated  by  the 
machinery  of  the  engine,  when  the  speed  of  a  train  is 
irregular.  The  injector  also  possesses  the  important 
advantage  that  it  raises  the  temperature  of  the  feed- 
water  to  approach  the  temperature  of  the  boiler,  there- 
by avoiding  shocks  and  strains  to  metal  that  very  cold 
water  is  likely  to  impart. 

So  long  as  injectors  were  imperfectly  understood, 
and  were  used  with  no  regularity,  they  retained  the 
name  of  being  unreliable ;  but  so  soon  as  they  began 
to  be  made  the  sole  feeding  medium  for  locomotive 
boilers,  they  had  to  be  worked  regularly,  and  kept  in 
order,  which  quickly  made  their  merits  recognized. 

INVENTION    OF   THE   INJECTOR. 

The  boiler-feed  injector  was  invented  by  Henri 
GifTard,  an  eminent  French  scientist  and  aeronaut. 
Its  successful  action  was  discovered  during  a  series  of 
experiments,  made  with  the  view  of  devising  light 
machinery  that  might  be  used  to  propel  balloons. 


SHORTNESS   OF   WATER.  99 

Although  Giffard  designed  the  most  perfect  balloon 
that  was  ever  constructed,  the  injector  was  not  used 
upon  it ;  and  the  invention  was  laid  aside  and  almost 
forgotten.  During  the  course  of  a  sea-voyage,  Giffard 
happened  to  meet  Stewart  of  the  engineering  firm, 
Sharp,  Stewart  &  Co.,  of  Manchester,  England.  In 
the  course  of  a  conversation  on  the  feeding  of  boilers, 
Giffard  remembered  his  injector,  and  mentioned  its 
method  of  action.  Stewart  was  struck  with  the 
simplicity  of  the  device,  and  undertook  to  bring  it  out 
in  England,  which  he  shortly  afterwards  did,  represent- 
ing the  interests  of  the  inventor  so  long  as  the  original 
patents  lasted.  By  his  advice,  William  Sellers  &  Co., 
of  Philadelphia,  were  given  control  of  the  American 
patents.  Seldom  has  an  invention  caused  so  much 
astonishment  and  wild  speculation  among  mechanics, 
and  even  among  scientists,  as  the  injector  did  for  the 
first  few  years  of  its  use.  Scientists  were  not  long  in 
discovering  the  philosophy  of  the  injector's  action,  but 
that  knowledge  spreaa  more  slowly  among  mechanics. 
It  was  regarded  as  a  case  of  perpetual  motion — the 
means  of  doing  work  without  power,  or,  as  Americans 
expressed  it,  by  the  same  means  a  man  could  raise 
himself  by  pulling  on  his  boot-straps. 

PRINCIPLE   OF   THE   INJECTOR'S   ACTION. 

Although  the  mechanism  of  the  injector  is  very 
simple,  the  philosophy  of  its  action  is  not  so  easily 
understood  as  the  principles  on  which  a  pump  raises 
water  and  forces  it  into  the  boiler.  On  beginning  to 
investigate  the  action  of  the  injector,  it  appears  a  phys- 


IOO  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

ical  paradox,  the  finding  that  steam  at  a  given  pressure 
leaves  a  boiler,  passes  through  several  tortuous  and 
contracted  passages,  raises  several  check-valves,  and 
then  forces  water  into  the  boiler  against  a  pressure 
equal  to  that  which  the  steam  had  when  it  first  began 
the  operation.  At  first  acquaintance,  the  operation 
looks  as  if  it  had  a  strong  likeness  to  perpetual  motion, 
but  closer  investigation  will  show  that  the  steam  which 
raises  and  forces  the  water  by  passing  through  an  in- 
jector performs  mechanical  work  as  truly  as  the  steam 
that  pushes  a  piston  which  moves  a  pump-plunger.  A 
current  of  any  kind,  be  it  steam,  air,  water,  or  other 
matter,  has  a  tendency  to  induce  a  movement  in  the 
same  direction  of  any  body  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact.  Thus,  we  are  all  familiar  with  the  fact  that 
a  current  of  air  called  wind,  passing  over  the  surface 
of  a  body  of  water,  sets  waves  in  motion,  and  dashes 
the  water  high  up  on  the  shore  away  above  its  original 
level.  In  the  same  way  a  jet  of  steam  moving  very 
rapidly,  when  injected  into  a  body  of  water  under 
favorable  conditions,  imparts  a  portion  of  its  motion 
to  the  water,  and  starts  it  with  momentum  sufficient 
to  overcome  a  pressure  even  higher  than  the  original 
pressure  of  the  steam.  The  locomotive  blast,  blowers, 
steam  siphons,  steam  jets,  jet  exhausters,  vacuum  ejec- 
tors, and  argand  burners,  are  all  common  instances  of 
the  application  of  the  principle  of  induced  currents. 

VELOCITY    OF   STEAM   AND    OF   WATER. 

At  a  boiler-pressure  of  140  pounds  per  square  inch 
steam  passes  into  the  atmosphere  with  a  velocity  of 


SHORTNESS   OF   WATER.  ICH 

1920  feet  per  second.  When  steam  at  this  speed 
strikes  like  a  lightning-flash  into  the  tubes  of  the  in- 
jector, it  becomes  the  ram  which  forces  the  water 
towards  the  boiler;  but  its  power  is  opposed  by  the 
tendency  of  the  water  inside  the  boiler  to  escape 
through  the  check-valve.  The  velocity  with  which 
water  will  flow  from  a  vessel  is  known  to  be  equal  in 
feet  to  the  square  root  of  the  pressure  multiplied  by 
12.19.  Accordingly,  in  the  case  under  consideration, 
the  water  inside  of  the  boiler  would  tend  to  escape  at 
a  speed  of  144  feet  per  second.  This  represents 
the  resistance  at  the  check-valve.  The  mechanical 
problem,  then,  to  be  worked  out  by  the  injector  is  to 
transform  the  energy  of  hot  steam  moving  at  a  high 
velocity  into  the  momentum  ^possessed  by  a  heavier 
and  colder  mass  of  water.  In  the  operation  the  steam 
yields  up  a  portion  of  its  heat  and  the  greater  part  of 
its  velocity,  but  it  keeps  a  current  of  water  flowing  fast 
enough  to  overcome  the  static  resistance  at  the  check- 


TEMPERATURE    OF    INJECTED    WATER. 

A  common  delivery  temperature  of  the  water  forced 
through  an  injector  is  160  degrees  Fahr.  Taking  the 
feed-water  at  55  degrees  Fahr.,  we  find  that  the  steam 
used  in  operating  the  injector  imparts  105  degrees 
Fahr.  to  the  feed-water  before  putting  it  into  the 
boiler.  One  pound  of  steam  at  140  pounds  boiler- 
pressure  contains  1224  heat  units  reckoned  above  zero. 
When  the  hot  steam  speeding  at  a  high  velocity 


IO2  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

strikes  the  feed-water,  part  of  the  heat  is  converted 
into  the  mechanical  work  required  to  put  the  water  in 
motion,  but  there  still  is  left  heat  sufficient  to  raise 
about  II  pounds  of  water  to  the  temperature  of  160 
degrees.  One  pound  of  steam,  therefore,  communi- 
cates to  1 1  pounds  of  water  the  motion  required  for 
overcoming  the  resistance  encountered  at  the  check- 
valve.  The  steam  moving  at  a  speed  of  1920  feet  per 
second  having  imparted  motion  to  a  body  eleven  times 
its  own  weight,  itself  in  the  meantime  having  become 
a  portion  of  the  mass,  the  velocity  of  the  feed-water 
would  be  1920-7-  12  =  170  feet  per  second.  When 
the  reduction  of  speed  due  to  friction  of  the  pipes  and 
other  resistances  is  considered,  there  still  remains 
momentum  enough  in  the  water  to  raise  the  check- 
valve. 

Although  1 60  degrees  is  about  the  average  heat  of 
the  water  delivered  by  lifting  injectors,  instruments 
can  be  designed  so  that  they  will  heat  the  water  much 
higher.  With  non-lifting  injectors  the  feed-water  is 
nearly  always  delivered  at  a  higher  temperature  than 
with  the  other  kind. 


ELEMENTARY    FORM    OF   INJECTOR. 

There  are  numerous  forms  of  injectors  in  use,  but 
they  are  all  developments  of  the  elementary  arrange- 
ment of  parts  shown  in  the  annexed  illustration,  Fig.  I. 
Steam  at  a  high  velocity  passes  from  the  boiler  into 
the  tube  A,  and  striking  the  feed-water  at  B,  is  itself 
condensed,  but  imparts  momentum  to  the  water  to 


SHORTNESS   OF   WATER.  1 03 

send  it  rushing  along  into  the  delivery-pipe  E  with 
sufficient  force  to  raise  the  check-valve  against  the 
pressure  inside  and  pass  into  the  boiler.  As  the  cur- 
rent of  water  could  not  be  started  into  rapid  motion 
against  the  constant  pressure  of  the  check-valve,  an 


FIG.  i. 

overflow  opening  is  provided  in  the  injector,  through 
which  the  water  can  flow  unchecked  till  the  necessary 
momentum  is  obtained,  when  the  overflow-valve  is 
closed. 

In  a  lifting  injector  the  parts  are  so  designed  that, 
in  starting,  a  jet  of  steam  passes  through  the  combin- 
ing tube  B  at  sufficient  velocity  to  create  a  vacuum  in 
the  water-chamber  XX,  and  the  water  is  drawn  into 
this  place  from  the  feed-pipe  as  if  by  the  suction  of  a 
pump.  The  steam-jet  then  striking  the  water  starts  it 
into  motion.  If  too  much  steam  is  admitted  for  the 
quantity  of  water  passing,  air  will  be  drawn  in  through 
the  overflow  opening,  mixing  with  the  water  and  re- 
ducing its  compactness,  while  some  uncondensed  steam 
will  pass  through  with  the  water.  This  will  reduce  the 
force  of  impact  of  the  feed-water  upon  the  boiler  check, 
and  when  it  becomes  so  light  that  the  momentum  of 
feed-water  is  no  greater  than  the  resistance  inside  the 
boiler,  the  injector  will  break.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  the  quantity  of  water  supplied  is  too  great  for 


104  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE   RUNNING. 

the  steam  to  put  into  high  motion,  part  will  escape 
through  the  overflow-valve.  In  some  forms  of  injectors, 
separate  appliances  are  used  for  raising  the  water  from 
the  forcing  chamber  to  the  source  of  supply. 

As  the  successful  operating  of  the  injector  is  depend- 
ent on  the  feed-water  promptly  condensing  the  steam 
which  supplies  the  power,  water  of  a  very  high  tem- 
perature cannot  be  fed  by  an  injector.  A  certain 
amount  of  live  steam  must  be  condensed  by  the  feed- 
water  to  impart  the  momentum  necessary  to  make  the 
latter  overcome  the  resistance  at  the  check-valve. 
When  the  feed-water  becomes  hotter  than  100  degrees 
Fahr.  a  point  is  soon  reached  where  it  takes  such  a 
large  body  of  water  to  condense, the  steam  that  there 
is  not  the  required  velocity  generated  to  force  the  feed- 
water  into  the  boiler. 

All  deviations  from  the  elementary  form  of  injector 
shown  are  made  for  the  purpose  of  extending  the  ac- 
tion of  the  instrument  under  varied  conditions,  for 
making  it  work  automatically  under  different  pressures 
of  steam,  and  for  increasing  its  capacity  for  raising  the 
water  to  be  used  above  its  natural  level. 


CARE   OF   INJECTORS. 

When  an  engineer  finds  that  an  injector  refuses  to 
work,  his  first  resort  should  be  the  strainer.  That  gets 
choked  with  cinders  or  other  impurities  so  frequently 
that  no  time  should  be  lost  in  examining  it.  One  day 
when  I  was  running  a  round-house,  an  engineer  came 
in  breathless,  with  the  information  that  his  engine  was 


SHORTNESS   OF    WATER.  10$ 

blocked  in  the  yard,  and  he  must  dump  his  fire,  as  he 
could  not  get  his  injector  to  work.  The  thermometer 
stood  at  twenty  degrees  below  zero,  and  an  Iowa  bliz- 
zard was  blowing ;  so  the  prospect  of  a  dead  engine  in 
the  yard  meant  some  distressingly  cold  labor.  I  asked, 
the  first  thing,  if  he  had  tried  the  strainer;  and  his  an- 
swer was  that  the  strainer  was  all  right,  for  the  injector 
primed  satisfactorily,  but  broke  every  time  he  put  on  a 
head  of  steam.  I  went  out  to  the  engine,  and  had  the 
engineer  try  to  work  the  injector.  By  watching  the 
overflow  stream,  I  easily  perceived  that  the  injector 
was  not  getting  enough  water,  although  it  primed.  An 
examination  showed  that  the  strainer  was  full  of  cin- 
ders, and  the  injector  went  to  work  all  right  as  soon  as 
the  obstruction  to  the  water  was  removed. 

THE    MOST   COMMON    CAUSES    OF   DERANGEMENT. 

Sand  and  cinders  are  the  most  common  causes  of 
failure  with  injectors,  as  they  are  indeed  with  all  water- 
feeding  apparatus.  A  very  common  cause  of  failure  of 
injectors  is  leakage  of  steam  through  throttle-valve  or 
check-valve,  keeping  the  tubes  so  hot  that  no  vacuum 
can  be  formed  to  make  it  prime.  A  great  many  injec- 
tor-checks have  been  turned  out  too  light  for  ordinary 
service,  while  others  are  made  in  a  shape  that  will 
always  leave  the  valve  away  from  the  seat  when  they 
stop  working.  Then  the  engineer  has  to  run  forward 
and  pound  the  check  with  a  hammer  to  keep  the  steam 
from  blowing  back,  and  that  soon  ruins  the  casting. 
Check-valves  set  in  a  horizontal  position  are  worthless 
with  water  that  contains  grit. 


106  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

HOW    TO    KEEP   Aft    INJECTOR   IN    GOOD    ORDER. 

To  preserve  a  good  working  injector,  the  engineer 
should  see  that  the  pipes  and  joints  are  always  per- 
fectly tight.  Of  course  it  is  difficult  to  keep  them  tight 
when  they  are  subjected  to  the  continual  jars  a  loco- 
motive must  stand;  but  injectors  cannot  be  depended 
on  where  there  is  a  possibility  of  air  mixing  with  the 
water.  Leaky  joints  or  pipes  are  particularly  trouble- 
some to  lifting  injectors;  for  air  passes  in,  and  keeps 
the  steam-jet  from  forming  a  vacuum.  At  first  the 
injector  will  merely  be  difficult  to  start ;  but  as  the 
leaks  get  worse  there  will  be  no  starting  it  at  all. 
Then,  the  air  mixing  with  the  water  is  detrimental  to 
the  working  of  all  injectors,  as  its  tendency  is  to  de- 
crease the  speed  of  the  water.  The  compact  molecules 
of  water  form  a  cohesive  body,  which  the  steam  can 
strike  upon  with  telling  force  to  keep  it  in  motion. 
When  the  water  is  mixed  with  air  it  lacks  the  element 
of  compactness,  and  the  steam-jet  strikes  a  semi-elastic 
body  which  does  not  receive  momentum  readily.  This 
mixture  of  steam  and  air  does  not  act  solidly  on  the 
check-valve,  but  makes  the  water  pass  in  with  a  bub- 
bling sound,  as  if  the  valve  were  moving  up  and  down  ; 
and  the  stream  of  water  breaks  very  readily  when  it  is 
working  in  this  way. 

COMMON   DEFECTS. 

As  maintaining  unbroken  speed  on  the  water  put  in 
motion  is  the  first  essential  in  keeping  an  injector  in 
good  working  order,  anything  that  has  a  tendency  to 


SHORTNESS   OF   WATER. 

reduce  that  speed  will  jeopardize  its  action.  A  variety 
of  influences  combine  to  reduce  the  original  efficiency 
of  an  injector.  Those  with  fixed  nozzles  are  constructed 
with  the  orifices  of  a  certain  size,  and  in  the  proportion 
to  each  other  which  experiment  has  demonstrated  to 
be  best  for  feeding  with  the  varied  steam-pressures. 
When  these  orifices  become  enlarged  by  wear  the  in- 
jector will  work  badly,  and  nothing  will  remedy  the 
defect  but  new  tubes.  The  tubes  sometimes  get  loose 
inside  the  shell  of  the  injector,  and  drop  down  out  of 
line.  The  water  will  then  strike  against  the  side  of 
the  next  tube,  or  on  some  point  out  of  the  true  line, 
scattering  it  into  spray  which  contains  no  energy  to 
force  itself  into  the  boiler.  A  machinist  examining  a 
defective  injector  should  always  make  sure  that  the 
tubes  are  not  loose.  Injectors  suffering  from  incrusted 
water-passages  will  generally  work  best  with  the  steam 
low.  In  districts  where  the  feed-water  is  heavily 
charged  with  lime  salts,  it  is  common  for  injectors  to 
get  so  incrusted  that  the  passages  are  almost  closed. 

Joints  about  injectors  that  are  kept  tight  by  packing 
must  be  closely  watched.  Many  an  injector  that  failed 
to  work  satisfactorily  has  been  entirely  cured  by  pack- 
ing the  ram-gland. 

CARE    OF   INJECTORS   IN   WINTER. 

During  severe  frosty  weather  an  injector  can  be 
kept  in  order  without  danger  of  freezing ;  but  it  needs 
constant  watching  and  intelligent  supervision. 

To  keep  an  injector  clear  of  danger  from  frost,  it 
should  be  fitted  with  frost-cocks  so  that  all  the  pipes 


108  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

can  be  thoroughly  drained.  Bends  in  the  pipes, 
where  water  could  stand,  should  be  avoided  as  far  as 
possible ;  and  where  they  cannot  be  avoided,  the  low- 
est point  should  contain  a  drain-cock. 

To  operate  an  injector  successfully,  thoughtful  care 
is  requisite  on  the  part  of  the.  engineer;  and  where 
this  is  given,  the  injector  will  prove  itself  a  very  eco- 
nomical boiler-feeder. 

The  injectors  principally  used  in  American  locomo- 
tives are  the  Sellers,  the  Nathan,  the  Rue  Little 
Giant,  and  the  Metropolitan.  All  are  good  reliable 
boiler-feeders,  and  all  are  made  to  wear  well  under  the 
rough  service  met  with  on  locomotives. 

THE    SELLERS    INJECTOR. 

When  the  Giffard  injector  was  first  introduced  into 
this  country  by  William  Sellers  &  Co.,  Philadelphia, 
it  was  a  rather  defective  boiler-feeder;  but  that  firm 
effected  great  improvements  and  led  the  way  for  mak- 
ing the  injector  the  popular  boiler-feeder  it  is  to-day. 
They  made  the  instrument  self-adjusting,  and  im- 
proved its  design  so  that  it  would  feed  automatically 
however  much  the  pressure  of  the  boiler  varied,  and 
finally  they  perfected  it  so  that,  should  anything  hap- 
pen to  interrupt  its  working,  it  would  automatically 
restart  itself.  The  latest  development  of  the  injector 
is  shown  by  a  sectional  view  in  Fig.  2  (see  next  page). 

This  instrument  will  start  at  the  lowest  steam- 
pressures  with  water  flowing  to  it,  and  will  lift  the 
water  promptly  even  when  the  suction-pipe  is  hot. 
At  10  pounds  steam-pressure  it  will  lift  the  water  2 


SHORTNESS  OF   WATER.  1 09 

feet ;  at  30  pounds,  5  feet ;  and  at  all  ordinary  pres- 
sures, say  60  pounds  and  over,  it  will  lift  from  12  to 
1 8  feet.  It  can  be  used  as  a  heater  for  the  water 
supply  by  simply  closing  the  waste- valve  and  pulling 
out  the  steam-lever. 

By  reference  to  the  cut  it  will  be  seen  that  this 
injector  consists  of  a  case  A  provided  with  a  steam- 
inlet  By  a  water-inlet  C,  an  outlet  D  through  which 


FIG.  2. — SELLERS. 

the  water  is  conveyed  to  the  boiler,  an  overflow  open- 
ing E,  a  lever  F  by  which  to  admit  steam,  stop  and 
start  its  working,  a  hand-wheel  G  to  regulate  the 
supply  of  water,  and  an  eccentric  lever  H  to  close  the 
waste-valve  when  it  is  desired  to  make  a  heater  of  the 
injector.  Its  operation  is  as  follows : 

The  water-inlet  C  being  in  communication  with 
water  supply,  the  valve  a  is  open  to  allow  the  water  to 
enter  the  chamber  /.  Steam  is  admitted  to  the  cham- 
ber B,  and  the  lever  F  is  drawn  out  to  lift  the  valve  b 


HO  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

from  its  seat  and  permit  the  steam  to  enter  the  an- 
nular lifting  steam-nozzle  c  through  the  holes  d  d. 
The  steam  issuing  from  this  nozzle  passes  through  the 
annular  combining  tube  e  and  escapes  from  the  instru- 
ment partly  through  the  overflow  opening  f  and 
partly  through  the  overflow  openings  provided  in  the 
combining  tube  g  g' ,  through  the  overflow  chamber  J 
and  passage  E  E,  and  produces  a  strong  vacuum  in 
the  water  chamber  /  which  lifts  the  water  from  the 
source  of  supply,  and  the  united  jet  of  steam  and 
water  is,  by  reason  of  its  velocity,  discharged  into  the 
rear  of  the  receiving  end  of  the  combining  tube  g. 
The  further  movement  of  the  lever  F  withdraws  the 
spindle  h  until  the  steam-plug  i  is  out  of  the  forcing 
nozzle  K,  allowing  the  steam  to  pass  through  the 
forcing  nozzle  K  and  come  in  contact  with  the  annular 
jet  of  water  which  is  flowing  into  the  combining  tube 
around  the  nozzle  K.  This  jet  of  water  has  already 
a  considerable  velocity,  and  the  forcing  steam  jet 
imparts  to  it  the  necessary  increment  of  velocity  to 
enable  it  to  enter  the  boiler  through  the  delivery  tube 
j  arid  boiler  check  k. 

If  from  any  cause  the  jet  should  be  broken — say 
from  a  failure  in  the  water  supply — the  steam  issuing 
from  the  forcing  nozzle  K  into  the  combining  tube  g 
will  escape  through  the  overflows  m  and  n  and  inter- 
mediate openings  with  such  freedom  that  the  steam, 
which  will  return  through  the  annular  space  formed 
between  the  nozzle  AT" and  combining  tube^-,  and  escape 
into  the  overflow  chamber  through  the  opening/,  will 
not  have  sufficient  volume  or  force  to  interfere  with 


SHORTNESS   OF   WATER.  Ill 

the  free  discharge  of  the  steam  issuing  from  the  annular 
lifting  steam-nozzle  and  escaping  through  the  same 
overflow  F\  and  hence  the  lifting  steam-jet  will  always 
tend  to  produce  a  vacuum  in  the  water-chamber  /, 
which  will  again  lift  the  water  when  the  supply  is 
renewed,  and  the  combined  annular  jet  of  steam  and 
water  will  be  forced  into  the  combining  tube  g  against 
the  feeble  current  of  steam  returning,  when  the  jet 
will  again  be  formed  and  will  enter  the  boiler  as  before. 
In  actual  practice  on  a  locomotive  the  movement  of 
the  lever  F  in  starting  the  injector  is  continuous. 

NATHAN    MFG.    CO.'S   IMPROVED    MONITOR   INJECTOR. 

One  of  the  most  successful  and  enduring  injectors 
in  use  is  the  Monitor,  the  distinguishing  feature  of 
which  originally  was  that  the  injector  is  constructed 
with  fixed  nozzles,  that  insure  great  durability,  com- 
bined with  certainty  of  action.  The  injector  shown 
in  Fig.  3  is  an  improvement  on  the  old  Monitor,  the 
radical  change  being  that  this  injector  is  operated  by 
a  single  lever.  Any  one  who  has  studied  the  opera- 
tion of  the  injector  already  described  will  have  no 
difficulty  in  perceiving  how  the  new  Monitor  works. 
It  will  be  seen  that  steam  is  admitted  from  the  top  to 
the  tube  that  forms  the  body  of  the  injector,  and  the 
water  from  below.  To  start  the  injector,  the  water- 
valve  W  is  opened.  The  main  lever  6*  is  then  pulled 
out  a  short  distance  to  lift  the  water;  when  the  water 
begins  to  escape  through  the  overflow  the  lever  5  is 
steadily  drawn  back,  which  puts  the  injector  working 


112 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 


at  its  maximum  power.    The  quantity  of  feed  required 
is  graduated  by  the  valve  W. 

When  it  is  desired  to  use  the  injector  as  a  heater, 
close  the  valve  H  and  pull  out  the  lever  S  all  the  way, 
At  other  times  the  valve  H  must  be  kept  open. 


Steam 


FIG.  3.— NATHAN'S  MONITOR. 

With  a  boiler  pressure  of  30  pounds  this  injector 
will  lift  the  water  5  feet,  and  at  ordinary  working 
pressure  the  steam  will  have  power  to  lift  the  water  to 
a  height  not  likely  to  arise  in  locomotive  practice. 

LITTLE    GIANT   INJECTOR. 

This  injector,  made  by  the  Rue  Manufacturing  Co., 
is  a  highly  efficient  boiler-feeder,  and  a  very  simple 
apparatus.  The  construction  is  clearly  seen  in  the 
engraving.  A  unique  feature  about  this  injector  is 


SHORTNESS   OF   WATER. 


the  movable  combining  tube  adjusted  by  a  lever, 
causing  the  feed  to  be  exactly  suited  to  the  service. 
Moving  the  lever  towards  A  tends  to  cut  off  the  feed, 
and  moving  towards  B  increases  it.  To  work  the 
injector,  the  combining  tube  lever  is  set  in  position  to 
admit  sufficient  water  to  condense  the  steam  from  the 
starting  valve.  The  starting  valve  is  then  opened 

/\ 


Water  Overflow 

FIG.  4.     LITTLE  GIANT. 

slightly  till  the  water  begins  to  escape  from  the  over- 
flow, when  it  is  opened  full.  The  feed  is  then  regu- 
lated by  the  combining  tube  lever.  To  use  this 
injector  as  a  heater,  the  overflow  is  closed  by  the 
combining  tube  being  moved  up  against  the  discharge, 
and  opening  the  starting  valve  sufficiently  to  admit 
the  quantity  of  steam  required. 

The  Metropolitan  1898  locomotive  injector  is  a 
double-tube  injector,  and  great  care  has  been  taken  in 
desismincf  same  to  have  the  chambers  and  the  form  of 

o  o 

the  shell  such  as  to  procure  the  greatest  possible 
steam  range.  This  injector  consists  of  two  sets  of 
tubes, — a  set  of  lifting  tubes,  which  lifts  the  water 
and  delivers  it  to  the  forcing  set  of  tubes  under  pres- 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 


sure,  which  in  turn  forces  the  water  into  the  boiler. 
The  lifting  set  of  tubes  act  as  a  governor  to  the  forcing 
tubes,  delivering  the  proper  amount  of  water  required 
for  the  condensation  of  the  steam,  thus  enabling  the 
injector  to  work  without  any  adjustment  under  a  great 
range  of  steam  pressure,  handle  very  hot  water,  and 


FIG.  5. — METROPOLITAN. 

admit   of  the    capacity   being   regulated   for  light   or 
heavy  service  under  all  conditions. 

The  Metropolitan  1898  locomotive  injector  starts 
with  30  Ibs.  steam  pressure,  and  without  any  adjust- 
ment of  any  kind  will  work  at  all  steam  pressures  up 
to  300  Ibs. ;  in  fact,  at  all  steam  pressures  and  under 
all  conditions  its  operation  is  the  same,  and  it  is  im- 
possible for  part  or  all  of  the  water  to  waste  at  the 
overflow. 


CHAPTER  X. 

BOILERS  AND  FIRE-BOXES. 

CARE   OF    LOCOMOTIVE   BOILERS. 

THE  present  tendency  of  steam  engineering,  in  the 
effort  to  increase  the  work  performed  in  return  for 
every  pound  of  fuel  consumed,  is  to  employ  steam  of 
very  high  pressure.  The  greater  the  initial  pressure 
of  the  steam,  the  greater  are  the  advantages  to  be  de- 
rived from  its  expansive  principle.  To  resist  success- 
fully the  enormous  aggregate  of  pressure  to  which 
locomotive  boilers  are  subjected,  a  well-constructed, 
strong  boiler  is  absolutely  necessary ;  and  the  various 
railroad  companies  throughout  the  country  meet  the 
required  conditions  in  an  admirable  manner,  as  is  evi- 
denced by  the  remarkable  exemption  of  such  boilers 
from  serious  accidents.  Although  the  locomotive  is 
the  most  intensely  pressed  boiler  in  common  use,  that 
supreme  disaster,  an  explosion,  is  of  rare  occurrence, 
considering  the  vast  number  of  boilers  doing  service 
all  over  the  continent.  This  result  is  due  to  constant 
care  in  the  construction,  in  the  maintenance,  and  in 
the  management  of  the  locomotive  boiler.  Like  the 
conservation  of  liberty,  eternal  vigilance  is  the  price 
of  safety. 

115 


Il6  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 


FACTOR   OF   SAFETY. 

There  is  perfect  safety  in  using  a  boiler  so  long  as 
a  good  margin  of  resisting  power  is  maintained  above 
the  tendency  within  to  tear  the  sheets  asunder.  This 
margin  is  very  low  for  locomotive  boilers  generally, 
hence  the  greater  necessity  for  care  in  maintenance 
and  management.  Years  ago  the  mechanical  world 
established  by  practice  a  rule  making  one-fifth  of  the 
ultimate  strength  of  a  boiler  its  safe  working-pressure. 
That  is,  a  boiler  carrying  200  pounds  working-pressure 
should  be  capable  of  withstanding  a  tension  of  1000 
pounds  to  the  square  inch  before  rupture  ensues. 
Locomotive  practice  in  this  country  does  not  provide 
much  more  than  half  of  that  margin  of  safety.  When 
deterioration  or  accident  reduces  this  margin,  danger 
begins. 

DIFFERENT   FORMS    OF   LOCOMOTIVE   BOILERS. 

A  great  variety  of  boilers  has  been  tried  at  various 
times  for  locomotives,  but  the  searching  tests  of  ex- 
perience and  the  survival  of  the  fittest  have  led  our 
designers  to  make  use  of  about  four  forms.  The  most 
popular  form  is  the  wagon-top  boiler,  which  has  an 
enlargement  of  the  shell  over  the  fire-box  and  is 
sloped  gradually  to  the  diameter  of  the  barrel.  What 
makes  this  form  of  boiler  popular  is  that  it  provides 
liberal  space  for  steam  above  the  fire-box,  and  this 
tends  to  supply  the  throttle-valve  with  steam  that  is 
dry  and  free  from  water. 


BOILERS  AND   FIRE-BOXES.  II 7 

The  straight  boiler,  which  has  no  wagon-top,  is  popu- 
lar among  some  superintendents  of  motive  power  be- 
cause it  is  said  to  be  a  particularly  strong  form  of 
boiler. 

The  Belpaire  boiler  is  a  favorite  on  some  roads.  Its 
chief  merit  is  that  the  fire-box  crown  and  outside  shell 
are  made  flat  and  they  can  be  bound  together  with 
stay-bolts  that  are  under  straight  tension. 

ANTHRACITE-BURNING   BOILERS. 

Anthracite  coal  burns  so  slowly  that  a  large  grate 
area  is  necessary  to  burn  the  fuel  fast  enough  to  make 
the  required  quantity  of  steam.  That  is  why  the 
peculiarity  of  anthracite-burning  locomotives  is  to  have 
huge  fire-boxes. 

Ever  since  railroad  operating  in  the  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania began  inventors  have  been  laboring  to  design 
forms  of  fire-boxes  that  would  provide  greater  grate 
area  than  was  possible  with  a  fire-box  curtailed  in 
breadth  by  the  width  of  frames  and  in  length  by  the 
spread  of  the  driving-axles.  These  contracted  condi- 
tions were  first  overcome  by  Ross  Winans,  who  put  a 
long  overhanging  fire-box  behind  the  back  driving- 
wheels.  The  same  practice  was  followed  by  Zerah 
Colburn  in  the  designing  of  locomotives  for  the  Erie ; 
but  he  went  further  than  Winans  and  spread  the  fire- 
box outside  the  line  of  the  frames.  He  was  the  orig- 
inator of  what  is  now  generally  known  as  the  Wootten 
fire-box.  This  name  originated  through  patents 
granted  to  John  E.  Wootten  of  the  Philadelphia  & 
Reading  for  the  combination  of  a  wide  fire-box  ex- 


Il8  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

tending  outside  of  the   frames,  a  combustion-chamber 
and  a  brick  wall  therein. 

That  kind  of  fire-box  has  been  found  very  useful 
for  burning  anthracite  slack.  Outside  of  the  Reading 
system  most  of  the  wide  fire-boxes,  or  "Mother 
Hubbards,"  as  trainmen  call  them,  have  no  com- 
bustion-chamber, and  therefore  the  right  name  for 
them  would  be  Colburn  fire-boxes. 


STAY-BOLTS. 

A  very  important  thing  about  a  locomotive  boiler  is 
getting  the  fire-box  secured  in  such  a  way  that  the 
least  possible  stresses  are  set  up  to  tear  the  fire-box 
and  the  boiler-shell  apart.  The  fire-box  must  neces- 
sarily be  made  with  flat  surfaces.  The  steam-pressure 
inside  tends  to  push  the  outside  and  inside  of  the  fire- 
box apart,  and  this  has  to  be  resisted  by  stay-bolts 
which  are  generally  placed  about  four  inches  apart. 
The  continual  changes  of  temperature  expands  and 
contracts  the  inside  of  the  fire-box  more  than  the  out- 
side, and  this  movement  is  resisted  by  the  stay-bolts. 
The  continual  moving  action  gradually  weakens  these 
stay-bolts,  until  a  time  comes  when  they  break.  Con- 
stant vigilance  is  necessary  to  detect  broken  stay-bolts. 
It  is  safe  to  say  that  ninety  per  cent  of  locomotive- 
boiler  explosions  are  due  to  broken  stay-bolts.  This 
will  indicate  how  important  it  is  that  unceasing  atten- 
tion should  be  devoted  to  detecting  the  deterioration 
of  stay-bolts.  The  only  sure  preventive  of  accidents 
from  broken  stay-bolts  is  to  have  hollow  stay-bolts, 


BOILERS  AND    FIRE-BOXES.  119 

or  solid  ones  drilled  from  the  outside  deep  enough  to 
cause  leakage  when  fracture  takes  place. 

BOILER    EXPLOSIONS. 

Certain  mechanical  empirics  and  impractical  quasi- 
scientists  have  at  various  times  attempted  to  surround 
the  cause  of  boiler  explosions  with  a  halo  of  mystery. 
But  our  most  accomplished  scientists  who  have  made 
the  subject  a  special  study,  and  our  best  mechanical 
expert?  who  have  devoted  years  of  patient  experiment 
and  research  to  the  investigation  of  boiler  explosion, 
attribute  the  terrible  phenomenon  to  intelligible  causes 
alone.  The  conclusions  of  the  practical  part  of  the 
mechanical  world  are  well  summed  in  one  sentence  in 
one  of  the  annual  reports  of  the  Master  Mechanics' 
Association.  It  says,  "  Explosions  originate  from 
over-pressure:  it  matters  not  whether  the  whole 
boiler,  or  a  portion  of  it,  is  too  weak  to  resist  the 
pressure." 

PRESERVATION    OF   BOILERS. 

The  preservation  of  a  boiler  depends  very  much 
upon  the  care  and  attention  bestowed  upon  it  by  the 
engineer,  and  no  other  person  is  so  much  interested 
in  its  safety.  To  prevent  undue  strains  from  being 
put  upon  the  boiler,  the  engineer  should  see  that  the 
safety-valves  and  the  steam-gauge  are  kept  in  proper 
order.  To  secure  this,  the  steam-gauge  should  be 
tested  at  least  once  a  month.  The  rule  established 
on  well-conducted  roads,  prohibiting  engineers  from 


120  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE   RUNNING. 

interfering  with  safety-valves,  is  a  very  judicious  one; 
and  no  persons  are  more  interested  in  its  strict  observ- 
ance than  the  engineers  themselves. 

CAUSING   INJURY    TO    BOILERS. 

Some  men  are  idiotic  enough  to  habitually  screw 
down  safety-valves,  that  the  engine  may  be  able  to 
overcome  heavy  grades  without  doubling.  This  is 
criminal  recklessness,  and  all  trainmen  are  interested 
in  its  suppression.  Low  water  has  often  been  blamed 
falsely  as  the  cause  of  disaster  to  boilers;  a  theory 
having  prevailed  that  permitting  the  water  to  become 
low  led  to  the  generation  of  an  explosive  gas  which 
no  sheet  could  withstand.  That  theory  was  exploded 
long  ago ;  but,  nevertheless,  it  is  certain  that  low 
water  paves  the  way  for  explosions  by  deteriorating 
the  fire-box  sheets,  and  destroying  stay-bolts.  A 
careful  engineer  watches  to  prevent  his  engine  from 
getting  "scorched"  even  slightly;  for  the  smallest 
scorching  may  yield  a  harvest  of  trouble,  even  after 
many  days.  The  danger  of  scorching  is  most  immi- 
nent when  an  engine  is  foaming  badly  from  the  effects 
of  impurities  in  the  feed-water  or  in  the  boiler.  At 
such  a  time  the  water  rises  so  lavishly  with  the  steam, 
that  the  gauges  are  no  indication  of  the  true  water- 
level.  The  steam  must  be  shut  off  to  find  the  true 
level  of  the  water.  Where  this  trouble  is  experienced, 
the  engineer  should  err  on  the  safe  side,  even  though 
untold  patience  is  needed  to  work  the  engine  along 
with  the  boiler  full  of  water. 


BOILERS  AND    F[RE-BOXES.  121 

DANGERS    OF    MUD    AND    SCALE. 

Mud  within  the  boiler,  and  scales  adhering  to  the 
heating-surface,  are  dangerous  enemies  to  the  pres- 
ervation of  boilers;  and  engineers  should  strive  to 
prevent  their  evil  effects  by  rooting  them  out  so  far  as 
practicable.  Much  can  be  banished  by  washing  out 
frequently ;  and  scale  can,  to  some  extent,  be  pre- 
vented by  selecting  the  softest  water  on  the  road.  If 
water  in  a  tank  is  so  hard  that  it  makes  soap  curdle 
instead  of  lather  when  a  man  attempts  to  wash  with  it, 
that  tank  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible. 

BLOWING   OFF   BOILERS. 

The  sudden  cooling  down  of  boilers,  by  blowing 
them  off  while  hot,  is  a  most  pernicious  practice, 
which  is  responsible  for  many  cracked  sheets  and 
broken  stay-bolts.  It  also  tends  to  make  a  boiler 
scale  the  heating-surfaces  rapidly.  Every  time  a 
boiler  is  blown  out  hot,  if  the  water  contains  calcare- 
ous solution,  a  coat  of  mud  is  left  on  the  heating-sur- 
faces, which  dries  hard  while  the  steel  is  hot.  If  a 
piece  of  scale  taken  from  a  boiler  periodically  sub- 
jected to  this  blowing-out  process  be  closely  examined, 
it  will  be  found  to  consist  of  thin  layers,  every  one 
representing  a  period  of  blowing  off  just  as  plainly  as 
the  laminae  of  our  rocks  indicate  the  method  of  their 
formation.  When  a  boiler  must  be  cooled  down 
quickly  for  washing  out  or  other  purposes,  the  steam 
should  be  blown  off  and  the  boiler  gradually  filled  up 
with  water.  Then  open  the  blow-off  cock,  and  keep 


122  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

water  running  in  about  as  fast  as  it  runs  out  until  the 
temperature  gets  even  with  the  atmosphere.  The 
boiler  may  now  be  emptied  without  injury.  Or  an- 
other good  plan  is  to  blow  off  about  two  gauges  of 
water  under  a  pressure  of  forty  or  fifty  pounds  of 
steam,  then  cool  down  the  boiler  gradually,  to  prepare 
for  washing. 

Although  the  dangers  of  blowing  off  hot  boilers, 
and  then  rushing  in  cold  water  to  wash  out,  are  well 
known  and  acknowledged,  yet  the  practice  is  still 
followed  on  many  roads  where  more  intelligent  action 
might  be  expected. 

OVER-PRESSURE. 

Should  it  happen  from  any  cause  that  the  safety- 
valves  fail  to  relieve  the  boiler,  and  the  steam  runs  up 
beyond  a  safe  tension,  the  situation  is  critical;  but  the 
engineer  should  not  resort  to  any  method  of  giving 
sudden  relief.  To  jerk  the  safety-valve  wide  open  at 
such  a  time  is  a  most  dangerous  proceeding.  A  dis- 
astrous explosion  lately  occurred  to  a  locomotive 
boiler  from  this  cause.  The  safety-valves  had  been 
working  badly  ;  and,  while  the  engine  was  standing  on 
a  side  track,  they  allowed  the  steam  to  rise  consider- 
ably above  the  working-pressure.  When  the  engineer 
perceived  this,  he  threw  open  the  safety-valve  by 
means  of  a  relief-lever,  and  the  boiler  instantly  went 
into  fragments.  Cases  have  occurred  where  the  quick 
opening  of  a  throttle-valve  has  produced  a  similar  re- 
sult. The  proximate  cause  of  such  an  accident  was 
the  violent  motion  of  water  and  steam  within  the 


BOILERS  AND  FIRE-BOXES.  123 

boiler,  induced  by  the  sudden  diminution  of  pressure 
at  one  point;  but  the  real  cause  of  the  disaster  was  a 
weak  boiler, — a  boiler  with  insufficient  margin  of  re- 
sisting power.  The  weakest  part  of  a  boiler  is  its 
strongest  point.  This  may  seem  paradoxical,  but  a 
moment's  reflection  will  show  that  the  highest 
strength  of  a  boiler  merely  reaches  to  the  point  where 
it  will  give  out.  Hence  engineers  should  see  that  a 
boiler  is  properly  examined  for  unseen  defects  so  soon 
as  signs  of  distress  appear.  Leaky  throat-sheets  or 
seams,  stay-heads  dripping,  or  incipient  cracks,  are 
indications  of  weakness ;  and  their  call  should  be  at- 
tended to  without  delay. 

\ 

RELIEVING   OVER-PRESSURE. 

When  an  engineer  finds  the  steam  rising  beyond  a 
safe  pressure,  he  should  reduce  it  by  opening  the 
heaters,  starting  the  injectors,  dampening  the  fire,  or 
even  by  blowing  the  whistle.  The  whistle  offers  a 
convenient  means  of  getting  rid  of  superfluous  steam, 
and  its  noise  can  be  stopped  by  tying  a  rag  between 
the  bell  and  the  valve-opening. 

BURST   TUBES. 

Should  any  boiler  attachment,  such  as  a  check-valve 
or  blow-off  cock,  blow  out  or  break  off,  no  time 
should  be  lost  in  quenching  the  fire.  That  is  the  first 
consideration.  A  burst  tube  will  generally  save  an 
engineer  the  labor  of  extinguishing  the  fire.  In  this 
case  an  engineer's  efforts  should  be  directed  to  reduc 
ing  the  pressure  of  steam  as  quickly  as  possible,  so 


124  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

that  he  may  be  able  to  plug  the  flue  before  the  water 
gets  out  of  the  boiler.  Tube-plugs  and  a  rod  for 
holding  them  are  very  requisite  articles ;  but,  in  driv- 
ing tube-plugs,  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  hammer 
too  hard,  or  a  broken  tube-sheet  may  result.  Plugs 
are  often  at  hand  without  a  rod  to  hold  them.  In 
such  an  emergency  a  hard  wooden  rail  can  be  used ; 
the  plug  being  fastened  to  the  end  by  means  of  nails 
and  wire,  or  even  wet  cord.  Where  no  iron  plug  is 
available,  a  wooden  plug  driven  well  in,  away  from 
the  reach  of  the  fire,  may  prevent  a  burst  tube  from 
leaking,  and  enable  the  engine  to  go  along;  but 
wooden  plugs  are  very  unreliable  for  such  a  purpose. 
They  may  hold  if  the  rupture  in  the  tube  should  be 
some  distance  inside ;  but,  should  the  cause  of  leaking 
be  close  to  the  tube-sheet,  a  wooden  plug  will  burn 
out  in  a  few  minutes. 


CHAPTER    XL 
ACCIDENTS   TO   THE   VALVE-MOTION. 

RUNNING   WORN-OUT   ENGINES. 

SOME  of  our  most  successful  engineers,  the  men 
who  pull  our  most  important  trains  daily  on  time, 
attribute  their  good  fortune  in  avoiding  delays,  to 
training  they  received  in  youth,  while  running  or 
firing  worn-out  engines  that  could  only  be  kept  going 
by  constant  attention  and  labor.  In  such  cases  men 
must  resort  to  innumerable  makeshifts  to  get  over  the 
road ;  they  have  frequently  to  dissect  the  machinery 
to  remedy  defects;  they  learn  in  the  impressive  school 
of  experience  how  a  broken-down  engine  can  best  be 
taken  home,  and  how  breaking  down  can  best  be  pre- 
vented. Firemen  and  young  engineers  generally  feel 
aggrieved  at  being  assigned  to  run  on  worn-out 
engines, — the  scrap-heaps,  as  they  are  called:  but  the 
man  who  has  not  passed  through  this  ordeal  has  missed 
a  Golconda  of  experience ;  his  potentialities  are  petri- 
fied without  reaching  action. 

CARE  AND  ENERGY  DEFY  DEFEAT. 

Among  a  certain  class  of  seafaring  men  the  captain 
of  a  ship  who  fails  from  any  cause  to  bring  his  vessel 

125 


126  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

safely  into  port  is  regarded  as  disgraced;  and,  there 
fore,  a  true  sailor  will  use  superhuman  efforts  to  pre- 
vent his  ship  from  becoming  derelict,  often  preferring 
to  follow  it  to  the  bottom  rather  than  abandon  his 
trust.  In  many  instances  the  sentiments  and  tradi- 
tions of  seamen  teach  'railroadmen  valuable  lessons. 
The  sacrifice  of  life  is  not  desired  or  expected  of 
engineers  in  their  care  of  the  vessel  they  command ; 
but  every  engineer  worthy  of  the  name  will  spare  no 
personal  exertion,  will  shrink  from  no  hardship,  that 
will  be  necessary  to  prevent  his  charge  from  becoming 
derelict.  Once  I  heard  a  hoary  engineer,  who  had 
become  gray  on  the  footboard,  make  the  proud  boast, 
"  My  engine  never  was  towed  in."  His  calm  words 
conveyed  an  eloquent  sermon  on  care  and  persever- 
ance. He  had  been  in  many  hard  straits,  he  had 
been  in  collisions,  he  had  been  ditched  with  engines, 
but  had  always  managed  to  get  them  home  without 
.assistance. 

WATCHING   THE   EXHAUST. 

What  the  beating  pulse  is  as  an  aid  to  the  physician 
in  diagnosing  diseases,  the  sound  of  the  exhaust  is  to 
the  engineer  as  a  means  of  enabling  him  to  distinguish 
between  perfective  and  defective  working  of  the  loco- 
motive. The  ability  to  detect  a  slight  derangement 
by  the  sound  of  the  exhaust,  can  only  be  acquired  by 
practice  in  watching  those  steam-notes  day  after  day, 
as  they  play  their  tune  of  labor  through  the  smoke- 
stack. When  the  steam-ports  are  even,  and  the  valves 
correctly  set,  with  tight  piston-packing,  and  valves  free 


ACCIDENTS    TO    THE    VALVE-MOTION.          127 

from  leaks,  the  notes  of  the  exhaust  will  sound  forth 
in  regular  succession  in  sharp,  ringing,  clear  tones, 
every  puff  seeming  to  cut  the  steam  clean  off  at  the 
top  of  the  stack.  There  is  a  long  array  of  defects 
represented  in  the  journey  from  this  case  of  apparently 
perfect  steam  performance,  to  that  where  the  exhaust- 
steam  escapes  as  an  unbroken  roar  mixed  with  uncer- 
tain, wheezy  coughs. 

THE  ATTENTIVE  EAR  DETECTS  DETERIORATION 
OF  VALVES. 

The  deterioration  of  piston-packing,  and  the  round- 
ing of  valve-seats,  which  produce  an  asthmatic  exhaust, 
may  be  followed  in  their  downward  course  if  the 
engineer  gets  into  the  habit  of  listening  to  the  exhaust, 
and  marking  its  changes.  It  is  very  important  that 
he  should  do  so.  The  man  whose  ear  from  long 
practice  has  become  sensitive  to  a  false  tone  of  the 
exhaust,  needs  not  to  make  experiments,  by  applying 
steam  to  the  engine  while  it  stands  in  various  posi- 
tions, in  order  to  find  out  where  a  blow  comes  from, — 
whether  it  is  in  the  pistons  or  in  the  valves. 

LOCATING   THE    FOUR   EXHAUST    SOUNDS. 

Leaning  out  of  the  cab-window,  he  watches  the 
crank  as  it  revolves,  and  compares  the  noise  made  by 
the  blowing  steam  with  the  crank  position.  When 
pulling  on  a  heavy  grade  is  an  excellent  time  for 
noting  imperfections  in  the  working  of  valves  and 
pistons;  for  the  movements  are  comparatively  slow, 
while  the  pressure  of  steam  on  the  working-parts  is  so 


128  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

heavy  that  any  leak  sounds  prominently  forth.  The 
engineer  observing  perceives  that  the  four  sounds  of 
the  exhaust,  due  to  each  revolution  of  the  drivers, 
occur  a  few  inches  before  the  crank  reaches,  first,  the 
forward  center,  second,  the  bottom  quarter,  third,  the 
back  center,  fourth,  the  top  quarter.  The  first  and  third 
position  exhausts  emit  the  steam  from  the  forward 
and  back  strokes  of  the  right-hand  piston :  the  second 
and  fourth  exhausts  are  due  to  discharges  of  the  steam 
that  has  been  propelling  the  left-hand  piston.  With 
these  facts  impressed  upon  his  mind,  he  will  under- 
stand, that  if  an  intermittent  blow  occurs  during  the 
periods  when  the  crank  is  traveling  from  the  forward 
center  to  the  bottom  quarter,  or  from  the  back  center 
to  the  top  quarter,  the  chances  will  be  that  the  right- 
hand  piston  needs  to  be  examined.  For  the  greatest 
pressure  of  steam  follows  the  piston  just  after  the 
beginning  of  each  stroke,  and  that  is  the  time  a  blow 
will  assert  itself.  Should  the  blow  occur  while  the 
right-hand  crank  is  moving  from  the  bottom  quarter 
to  the  back  center,  or  from  the  top  quarter  to  the 
forward  center,  it  will  indicate  that  the  left-hand 
piston  is  at  fault.  For  at  these  periods  the  left-hand 
cylinder  is  receiving  its  greatest  pressure  of  steam. 

IDENTIFYING   DEFECTS   BY    SOUND   OF   THE   STEAM. 

It  is  generally  understood  that  an  intermittent  or 
recurring  blow  belongs  to  the  pistons,  and  that  a  con- 
stant blow  comes  from  the  valves.  But  sometimes 
the  valves  blow  intermittently,  being  tight  at  certain 
points  of  the  travel,  and  leaky  at  other  points.  To 


ACCIDENTS    TO    THE    VALVE-MOTION.  12$ 

distinguish  between  the  character  of  these  blows  is 
sometimes  a  little  difficult  except  to  the  thoroughly 
practiced  ear.  The  sound  of  the  blow  can  be  heard 
best  when  the  fire-box  door  is  open,  and  the  novice 
should  not  fail  to  listen  for  it  under  that  condition. 
The  valve  blow  is  a  sort  of  wheeze,  with  the  sugges- 
tion of  a  whistle  in  it :  the  piston  makes  a  clean, 
honest  blow,  which  would  break  into  a  distinct  roar 
if  enough  steam  could  get  through.  But  a  whistling 
sound  in  the  exhaust  is,  by  no  means,  a  certain  indi- 
cation of  the  valves  blowing  through ;  for  sometimes 
the  nozzles  get  clogged  up  with  a  gummy  substance 
from  the  lubricating  oils,  and  a  distinct  whistling 
exhaust  results  therefrom.  With  a  watchful  ear,  the 
progress  of  degeneration  in  the  valves  can  be  noted 
day  after  day ;  for  it  is  a  decay  which  goes  on  by 
degrees, — the  inevitable  slow  destruction  that  friction 
inflicts  upon  rubbing  surfaces.  Pistons  are  more 
erratic  in  their  calls  for  attention.  With  them  it  is 
quite  common  for  a  stalwart  blow  to  start  out  without 
any  warning,  the  cause  generally  being  broken  pack- 
ing-rings. The  various  kinds  of  steam  packing  seem 
more  liable  to  have  broken  rings  than  the  old-fashioned 
spring  packing,  but  they  generally  run  longer  with 
less  attention. 

ACCIDENTS    PREVENTED    BY   ATTENDING   TO    THE 
NOTE    OF   WARNING   FROM    THE    EXHAUST. 

The  habit  of  closely  watching  the  exhaust  is  likely 
to  prove  serviceable  in  more  ways  than  in  keeping 
the  engineer  posted  on  the  condition  of  the  steam- 


ISO  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

distribution  gear.  Its  sound  often  acts  as  a  danger 
alarm,  which  should  never  go  unheeded.  Many  an 
engine  has  gone  home  on  one  side,  and  not  a  few 
have  been  towed  in  cold,  through  accidents  to  the 
valve-gear,  which  could  have  been  prevented  had  the 
engineer  attended  to  the  warning  voice  of  a  false  ex- 
haust. The  nuts  work  off  an  eccentric-strap  bolt; 
and  it  drops  out,  letting  the  strap  open  far  enough  to 
cause  an  uneven  valve-travel.  If  the  engineer  hears 
this,  and  stops  immediately  to  examine  the  ma- 
chinery, he  is  likely  to  detect  the  defect  before  the 
strap  breaks.  Again,  one  side  of  a  valve-yoke  may 
have  snapped,  leaving  the  other  side  to  bear  the  load ; 
or  bolts  belonging  to  different  parts  of  the  links  or 
eccentric-straps  may  be  working  out, — so  that  the 
uniformity  of  the  valve-travel  is  affected ;  and  the 
same  result  may  be  produced  by  the  eccentrics  get- 
ting loose.  Young  engineers,  to  whom  these  pages 
are  addressed,  should  make  up  their  minds  that  an 
engine  never  exhausts  an  irregular  note  without 
something  being  the  matter  which  does  not  admit  of 
running  to  a  station  before  being  examined.  It  may 
only  be  an  eccentric  slipped  a  little  way,,  a  mishap 
that  is  not  calculated  to  result  disastrously ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  probably  something  of  a  more 
dangerous  character. 

NEGLECTING   A   WARNING. 

Engineer  Joy  of  the  D.  &  E.  road  went  in  with  a 
broken  eccentric-strap.  Questioning  him  about  the 
accident  brought  out  the  fact  that,  in  starting  from  a 


ACCIDENTS    TO    THE    VALVE-MOTION.  l$\ 

station,  he  heard  the  engine  make  two  or  three 
curious  exhausts;  but  he  was  running  on  a  time- 
order,  and  did  not  wish  to  cause  delay  by  stopping 
to  examine  the  engine.  But  he  had  not  gone  half  a 
mile  when  he  found  it  necessary  to  stop  and  discon- 
nect the  engine,  and  by  doing  so  held  an  express 
train  forty  minutes. 

HOW   AN    ECCENTRIC-STRAP   PUNCHED    A   HOLE 
IN   A   FIRE-BOX. 

A  representative  case  of  neglecting  a  plain  warning 
happened  on  an  Illinois  road  some  time  ago.  John 
Thomas  was  pulling  a  freight  train  up  a  grade,  when, 
to  use  his  own  words,  "  The  engine  began  to  exhaust 
in  the  funniest  way  you  ever  heard.  She  would  get 
on  to  three  legs  for  an  engine  length  or  so,  then  she 
would  work  as  ^square  and  true  as  she  ever  did,  but 
only  for  a  few  turns,  when  she  got  to  limping  again." 
This  runner  knew  that  something  was  wrong,  and  he 
determined  to  examine  the  engine  at  the  next  stop- 
ping-point. But  delays  in  such  a  case  are  full  of 
peril.  When  he  got  over  the  grade  and  shut  off 
steam,  there  was  a  tumultuous  rattling  of  the  reverse- 
lever,  succeeded  by  a  fearful  pounding  about  the 
machinery;  a  tearing  up  of  road-bed  sent  a  shower  of 
sand  and  gravel  over  the  train;  then  a  scream  from 
escaping  steam  and  water  drowned  all  other  noises, 
and  the  engine  was  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of  blinding 
vapor.  The  forward  bolt  of  one  of  the  eccentric- 
strap  rods  had  worked  out  and  allowed  the  end  of  the 
rod  to  drop  on  the  track.  Then  it  doubled  up  and 


132  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

tore  away  the  whole  side  of  the  motion ;  and  part  of 
a  broken  eccentric-strap  knocked  a  hole  in  the  fire- 
box. Here  was  the  progress  towards  destruction: 
A  small  pin  got  lost,  which  permitted  the  nut  of  an 
important  bolt  to  unscrew  itself;  then  this  bolt,  with 
many  a  warning  jar  and  jerk,  escaped  from  its  place 
in  .the  link ;  and  the  conditions  for  a  first-class  break- 
down had  come  round. 

INTEREST    IN    THE    VALVE-MOTION   AMONG 
ENGINEERS. 

Whenever  locomotive  engineers  congregate  in  the 
round-house,  in  the  lodge  or  division-room,  a  fruitful 
theme  of  conversation  and  discussion  is  the  valve- 
motion.  Curious  opinions  are  often  heard  expressed 
upon  this  complex  subject.  There  are  comparatively 
few  men  who  understand  it  properly:  but  it  has  a 
fascination  which  attracts  all  alike,  the  wise  and  the 
ignorant ;  and  the  man  who  is  altogether  uncertain 
about  the  true  meaning  of  lap  and  lead,  expansion 
and  compression,  is  generally  more  loquacious  on 
valve-motion  than  the  engineer  who  has  made  the 
subject  an  industrious  study. 

TROUBLE    WITH    THE    VALVE- MOTION. 

However  well  each  may  understand  his  business,  in 
one  respect  all  engineers  are  in  perfect  harmony;  that 
is,  in  hating  to  encounter  trouble  with  the  valve-gear 
on  the  road.  The  valves  being  the  lungs  of  the 
machine,  any  injury  or  defect  to  their  connections 
strikes  at  a  vital  organ.  With  a  good  valve-motion, 


ACCIDENTS    TO    THE    VALVE-MOTION.          133 

and  valves  properly  set,  the  steam  is  distributed  so 
that  nearly  an  equal  amount  is  admitted  through 
each  port  in  regular  rotation ;  the  release  taking  place 
in  even  succession.  This  makes  the  exhaust-notes 
uniform  in  pitch  and  period.  A  sudden  departure 
from  this  uniformity  indicates  that  something  is 
wrong  with  the  valve-motion.  It  should  be  the  sig- 
nal to  stop  and  institute  a  searching  examination. 
In  doing  so,  avoid  jumping  at  conclusions  regarding 
the  cause  of  the  irregularity,  and  coolly  examine, 
separately,  each  part  whose  motion  influences  the 
valve-travel. 

A   WRONG   CONCLUSION. 

Fred  Bemis  missed  his  luck  by  jumping  too  readily 
at  conclusions.  Something  happened  to  his  engine; 
and  he  stopped  by  compulsion,  and  found  it  would 
not  move  either  way.  He  felt  certain  that  both  ec- 
centrics on  one  side  had  slipped;  and,  considering 
himself  equal  to  setting  any  number  of  eccentrics,  he 
got  down  and  fixed  them  in  what  he  supposed  was 
the  proper  position.  But,  on  trying  to  move  the  en- 
gine, he  found  it  still  refused  to  go.  He  kept  work- 
ing at  those  eccentrics  without  result  till  his  water 
got  low,  and  he  was  compelled  to  dump  the  fire;  the 
consequence  being  that  the  engine  went  cold,  and  was 
towed  home.  When  an  examination  was  made,  it 
was  found  that  a  broken  valve-yoke  was  the  cause  of 
trouble. 


134  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

LOCATING   DEFECTS    OF   THE   VALVE-MOTION. 

When  anything  goes  wrong  with  the  valve-motion, 
the  first  point  of  investigation  is,  to  find  out  which 
side  is  at  fault.  This  can  be  ascertained  by  opening 
the  cylinder-cocks,  and  giving  the  engine  steam. 
With  the  reverse-lever  in  forward  motion,  the  forward 
cylinder-cocks  should  show  steam  when  the  crank-pins 
are  traveling  below  the  axle,  and  the  back  cocks 
should  blow  when  the  pins  make  their  similar  revolu- 
tion above  the  axle.  Any  departure  from  this  method 
of  steam- distribution  will  make  one  side  work  against 
the  other.  When  the  engineer  has  satisfied  himself 
on  which  side  the  defect  lies,  he  will  do  well  to  thor- 
oughly examine  the  eccentrics  with  their  straps  and 
rods,  the  links  with  their  hangers  and  saddles,  the 
rocker-box  and  -arms  with  all  the  bolts  and  pins  con- 
necting these  articles.  What  might  be  regarded  as  a 
trifling  defect,  sometimes  makes  an  engine  lame.  I 
have  known  a  loose  valve-stem  key  put  an  engine 
badly  out  of  square.  Eccentric-rods,  slipping,  often 
produce  this  effect.  When  the  eccentrics  are  found 
in  the  proper  position,  the  rocker-box  secure  in  the 
shaft,  and  all  the  bolts,  pins,  and  keys  in  good  order, 
and  in  their  proper  positions,  the  fault  may  be  looked 
for  in  the  steam-chest. 

POSITION   OF   ECCENTRICS. 

With  engines  where  keys  are  not  used  to  secure  the 
eccentrics  to  the  shaft,  their  slipping  on  the  road  is 
a  common  occurrence.  Eccentric-strap  oil-passages 


ACCIDENTS    TO    THE    VALVE-MOTION.          135 

getting  stopped  up,  or  neglect  in  not  oiling  these 
straps  or  the  valves,  puts  an  unnecessary  tension  on 
the  eccentrics,  which  often  results  in  their  slipping  on 
the  shaft.  Engineers  ought  to  mark  the  proper  posi- 
tion for  eccentrics  on  the  shaft ;  so  that,  when  slipping 
happens,  it  can  be  adjusted  without  the  delay  that 
often  occurs  in  calculating  the  right  position.  When 
the  crank-pin  is  on  the  forward  center,  the  body  of 
the  go-ahead  eccentric  is  above  the  axle,  and  the  body 
of  the  back-up  eccentric  is  below  the  axle,  each  of  the 
eccentrics  being  advanced  about  T^-  of  the  revolution 
from  the  right  angle  position  towards  the  crank-pin ; 
or,  to  state  it  more  accurately,  the  center  of  the 
eccentric  is  advanced  a  horizontal  distance  to  equal 
the  lap  and  lead  of  the  valve.  If  the  valve  had  neither 
lap  nor  lead,  the  eccentrics  would  stand  exactly  at 
right  angles  to  the  crank.  As  it  is,  both  of  them  have 
a  tendency  to  hug  the  crank;  the  eccentric  which 
regulates  the  distribution  of  steam  following  the 
crank.  Every  engineer  should  familiarize  himself 
with  the  correct  position  of  eccentrics,  so  that,  when 
trouble  happens  with  the  valve-gear  on  the  road,  he 
will  experience  no  difficulty  in  grappling  with  the 
mishap. 

METHOD    OF    SETTING   SLIPPED    ECCENTRICS. 

The  slipping  of  one  eccentric  is  a  trifling  matter, 
which  can  be  quickly  remedied  if  the  set-screws  are  in 
a  position  where  they  can  be  reached  conveniently. 
If  it  is  a  go-ahead  eccentric,  set  the  engine  on  the 
center  of  the  disabled  side, — no  matter  which  center, 


136  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

— put  the  reverse-lever  in  the  back  notch  of  the 
quadrant,  and  scratch  a  line  with  a  knife  on  the  valve- 
stem  close  to  the  gland.  Then  put  the  lever  in  the 
forward  notch,  and  move  the  slipped  eccentric  till  the 
line  appears  in  the  point  where  it  was  made.  Fasten 
the  set-screws,  and  the  engine  will  be  found  true 
enough  to  proceed  with  the  train.  Care  must  be  taken 
in  moving  the  eccentric  to  see  that  the  full  part  is  not 
placed  in  the  same  position  as  the  other  one,  or  they 
will  both  be  set  for  back  motion.  A  back-up  eccentric 
slipped,  while  the  go-ahead  one  remains  intact,  can 
be  adjusted  in  a  similar  way ;  the  scratch  on  the  valve- 
stem  being  made  with  the  engine  in  full  forward  mo- 
tion, and  the  adjustment  of  the  eccentric  done  in  full 
back  motion.  The  philosophy  of  this  method  is,  that 
the  valve  is  in  nearly  the  same  position  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  stroke  for  the  forward  or  back  motion ; 
and  the  position  of  the  eccentric  which  has  not 
moved  is  used  to  find  the  proper  place  for  the  one 
which  slipped. 

Should  the  unusual  circumstance  of  both  eccentrics 
on  one  side  slipping  overtake  an  engineer,  he  will  have 
to  pursue  a  different  method  of  adjustment.  The 
most  systematic  plan  is  to  place  the  engine  on  the  for- 
ward center,  and  set  the  go-ahead  eccentric  above  the 
axle,  and  the  back-up  eccentric  below  the  axle.  With 
the  reverse-lever  in  the  forward  notch,  advance  the 
top  eccentric  till  the  front  cylinder-cock  shows  steam, 
which  can  be  ascertained  by  blocking  the  wheels,  and 
slightly  opening  the  throttle.  That  will  put  the  go- 
ahead  eccentric  near  enough  to  the  proper  position  for 


ACCIDENTS    TO    THE    VALVE-MOTION.          137 

running.  For  the  back-up  eccentric,  pull  the  reverse- 
lever  into  back-motion,  and  turn  the  eccentric  towards 
the  crank-pin  till  steam  appears  at  the  front  cylinder- 
cock  ;  and  that  part  of  the  motion  will  be  right.  Or 
the  back-up  eccentric  can  be  set  by  the  forward  eccen- 
tric in  the  manner  described  where  one  eccentric  has 
slipped. 

SLIPPED    ECCENTRIC-RODS. 

Where  slotted  rods  are  used,  they  frequently  slip, 
making  the  engine  lame.  The  cause  of  trouble  in 
such  a  case  can  be  identified  by  moving  the  engine 
slowly,  with  the  cylinder-cocks  open.  The  disturb- 
ance to  the  regularity  of  the  valve's  motion  caused 
by  a  slipped  rod  will  admit  steam  prematurely  on  one 
end  of  the  cylinder,  while  it  delays  the  admission  on 
the  other  end.  The  valve  is  made  to  travel  more  on 
one  side  of  the  exhaust  center  than  on  the  other. 
Lengthening  or  shortening  the  valve-stem  has  a  sim- 
ilar effect,  but  this  makes  the  engine  lame  in  both 
gears;  while  the  slipping  of  an  eccentric-rod  only 
makes  the  engine  lame  in  the  motion  that  the  rod  be- 
longs to.  This  is  subject  to  a  slight  modification, 
however;  for  the  back-motion  eccentric  being  badly 
out  of  square,  will  affect  the  correctness  of  the  for- 
ward motion,  when  the  engine  is  working  close  hooked 
up.  But  in  full  motion  it  will  not  be  perceptible. 

DETECTING   THE    CAUSE    OF   A    LAME    EXHAUST. 

If  in  moving  the  engine  ahead  slowly,  with  the 
cylinder-cocks  open,  it  is  found  that  steam  is  admitted 


LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

to  the  cylinder  before  the  piston  has  nearly  reached 
the  center  or  dead  point,  or  that  the  back  cylinder- 
cock  does  not  show  steam  till  after  the  piston  has 
passed  the  back  center,  the  eccentric-rod  is  too  long. 
The  rod  being  too  short  produces  precisely  an  opposite 
effect.  The  steam  arrives  late  on  the  back  stroke,  and 
ahead  of  time  on  the  forward  stroke.  This  is  differ- 
ent from  the  action  of  the  steam  where  an  eccentric 
has  slipped.  In  that  case,  there  will  be  pre-admission 
of  steam  before  the  beginning  of  both  strokes,  or 
post-admission,  that  is,  late  arrival  of  steam,  for  both 
strokes.  Take  a  go-ahead  eccentric  for  example.  If 
it  slips  backward  on  the  shaft,  its  effect  will  be  to 
delay  the  admission  of  steam  till  after  the  beginning 
of  each  stroke ;  and,  if  it  slips  forward,  the  result  will 
be  to  accelerate  the  lead  of  the  valve  opening  the 
steam-port  before  the  piston  has  reached  the  com- 
mencement of  each  stroke. 

WHAT   TO    DO    WHEN   ECCENTRICS,    STRAPS,  OR   RODS 

BREAK. 

When  either  of  these  accidents  happens,  the  safest 
plan  is  to  take  down  both  straps  and  rods  on  the  de- 
fective side.  Some  engineers  leave  the  back-up  eccen- 
tric strap  and  rod  on,  when  the  forward  strap  or  rod 
has  broken ;  but  it  is  a  little  risky  under  certain  con- 
ditions. After  getting  the  eccentric  straps  and  rods 
down,  drop  the  link-hanger  away  from  the  tumbling- 
shaft,  disconnect  the  valve-stem,  and  tie  the  valve-rod 
to  the  hand-rail.  Then  set  the  valve  in  the  middle  of 
the  seat,  so  that  it  will  cover  both  the  steam-ports, 


ACCIDENTS    TO    THE    VALVE-MOTION.          1 39 

and  hold  it  in  that  position  by  pinching  the  stem  with 
the  gland,  which  is  done  by  screwing  up  the  gland  ob- 
liquely. Take  down  the  main  rod,  and  block  the 
cross-head  securely  at  the  back  end  of  the  guides. 
Good  hard-wood  blocking  prepared  beforehand  should 
be  used  for  this  purpose,  and  it  ought  to  be  fastened 
with  a  rope  or  marline.  A  neater  plan  for  holding 
the  cross-head  in  place  is  described  by  Frank  C.  Smith, 
in  the  Torch.  He  says,  "  Have  the  blacksmith  make 
a  hook  out  of  a  piece  of  inch  and  a  half  round  iron ; 
also  a  piece  about  fifteen  inches  long  by  one  and  a 
half  thick,  and  four  inches  wide,  with  a  hole  through 
the  centre  for  the  shank  of  the  hook  to  pass  through. 
This  shank  is  threaded  for  a  nut.  Now,  when  it  is 
necessary  to  block  a  piston,  get  it  to  the  back  end, 
pass  the  hook  around  the  wrist  of  the  cross-head,  and 
the  other  end  through  the  straight  piece  which  bears 
against  the  yoke  supporting  the  back  end  of  the 
guides;  run  up  a  nut  on  the  shank  of  the  hook,  hard 
against  the  cross-piece,  and  the  piston  is  secured." 
The  piston  being  properly  fastened,  it  is  a  wise  sup- 
plement to  the  work  to  tie  the  cylinder-cocks  open, 
or  to  take  them  out  altogether.  The  engine  is  now 
ready  to  proceed  on  one  side. 

Young  engineers  can  not  be  too  strongly  impressed 
with  the  necessity  for  having  the  cross-head  properly 
secured  before  trying  to  move  the  engine.  I  have  re- 
peatedly known  of  serious  damage  being  caused  by 
placing  too  much  confidence  in  weak  blocking.  Tak- 
ing out  the  cylinder-cocks  is  a  wise  security  against 
accidents  of  this  kind ;  for,  should  a  little  steam  be 


140  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

passing    through   the  valve,   it  has  a  port   of  escape 
without  putting  heavy  pressure  on  the  piston. 

DIFFERENT   WAYS    OF    SECURING   THE  CROSS-HEAD. 

In  regard  to  the  method  of  securing  the  piston 
when  one  side  of  an  engine  is  taken  down,  there  is 
considerable  diversity  of  opinion  among  engineers. 
Some  men  maintain  that  the  proper  and  quick  plan  is, 
merely  to  move  the  piston  to  one  end  of  the  cylinder, 
pushing  the  valve  in  the  same  direction,  so  that  the 
steam-port  will  be  open  at  the  end  away  from  the 
piston.  This  will  keep  the  cylinder  full  of  steam,  and 
hold  the  piston  from  moving.  But,  if  by  any  accident 
the  valve  should  be  moved  to  the  opposite  end  of  the 
seat,  steam  would  get  to  the  wrong  end  of  the  cylin- 
der, and  the  piston  would  certainly  smash  out  the 
head.  Another  risky  plan,  practiced  by  men  economi- 
cal of  work,  is  to  place  the  valve  on  the  center  of  the 
seat,  and  let  the  piston  go  without  fastening.  These 
slipshod  methods  do  not  pay. 

When  it  is  decided  to  push  the  piston  to  the  back 
end  of  the  cylinder  it  should  not  be  pushed  far  enough 
to  permit  the  packing-rings  to  drop  into  the  counter- 
bore.  It  should  not  be  forced  back  of  its  ordinary 
travel.  This  can  be  identified  by  the  travel  of  the 
cross-head  on  the  guides.  A  small  block  that  will 
cover  the  extent  of  the  counter-bore  should  be  in- 
serted between  the  cross-head  and  the  back  of  the 
guides. 


ACCIDENTS    TO    THE    VALVE-MOTION.          I41 

BROKEN    TUMBLING-SHAFT. 

This  accident  is  very  serious;  but  it  need  not  dis- 
able the  engine,  although  it  will  lessen  the  engineer's 
power  to  manage  it  freely.  To  get  the  engine  going, 
calculate  the  position  the  links  must  stand  in  to  pull 
the  train,  and  cut  pieces  of  wood  to  fit  between  the 
block  and  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  links,  so  that  the 
latter  may  be  kept  in  the  required  position.  For 
forward  motion,  there  will  be  short  pieces  in  the  top, 
and  long  pieces  in  the  bottom.  When  back  motion 
is  needed,  reverse  the  pieces  of  wood.  A  common 
plan  is  to  use  one  piece  of  wood,  working  the  engine 
in  full  gear. 

The  same  treatment  will  keep  an  engine  going  when 
the  tumbling-shaft  arms,  the  reach-rod,  the  link- 
hanger,  or  the  saddle-pin  breaks.  The  failure  of  a 
link-hanger  or  saddle-pin  will  only  necessitate  the 
blocking  of  one  side. 

BROKEN  VALVE-STEM,  OR  VALVE-YOKE. 
For  a  valve-stem  broken,  the  eccentric-strap  or  link 
need  not  be  interfered  with.  If  the  break  is  outside 
the  steam-chest,  take  down  the  valve-stem  rod,  and 
set  the  valve  on  the  middle  of  the  seat ;  take  down 
the  main  rod,  and  secure  the  piston  as  previously  di- 
rected. With  a  valve-stem  broken  inside  the  chest, 
or  a  valve-yoke  broken,  a  little  additional  work  is 
necessary.  The  steam-chest  cover  must  now  come 
up,  and  the  valve  be  secured  in  its  proper  place  by 
pieces  of  wood,  or  any  other  material  that  will  keep  it 
from  moving;  and  the  stuffing-box  must  be  closed,  to 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 


prevent  escape  of  steam  through  the  space  vacated  by 
the  valve-stem. 

TO  SECURE  A  BROKEN  VALVE-STEM. 
When  metallic  packing  is  used  in  valve-stem,  the 
best  way  to  hold  it  from  moving  when  that  side  is  dis- 
connected is  to  remove  the  oil-cup  and  screw  in  a  set- 
screw  that  will  pinch  the  stem  and  hold  it  tight.  A 
better  way  is  to  carry  a  bracket  that  will  fit  the  gland- 
studs  at  one  end  and  the  keyhole  at  the  other,  and 
use  that  to  prevent  the  valve-stem  from  moving. 

WHEN   A    ROCKER-SHAFT    OR    LOWER    ROCKER-ARM 

BREAKS. 

A  broken  rocker-shaft,  or  the  fracture  of  the  lower 
arm,  entails  the  taking  down  of  both  eccentrics  and 
the  link,  besides  the  main  rod,  and  the  securing  of  the 
valves  and  piston.  The  breaking  of  an  upper  rocker- 
arm  is  equivalent  to  a  broken  valve-stem,  and  requires 
the  same  treatment. 

MISCELLANEOUS    ACCIDENTS    TO    VALVE-MOTION. 

Accidents  to  the  valve-seat,  such  as  the  breaking  of 
a  bridge,  can  be  fixed  for  running  the  engine  home  on 
one  side,  by  covering  the  ports,  and  stripping  that 
side  of  the  engine,  just  as  had  to  be  done  for  a  broken 
valve-yoke.  If  a  serious  break  in  a  bridge  occurs,  it 
is  indicated  by  a  tremendous  blow  through  the  ex- 
haust port,  out  by  the  stack.  A  mishap  of  much  less 
consequence  than  a  broken  bridge  is  a  "  cocked  " 
valve,  and  the  small  mishap  is  very  liable  to  be  mis- 
taken for  the  greater  one.  Where  the  yoke  is  tight- 


ACCIDENTS    TO    THE    VALVE-MOTION.          H3 

fitted,  or  out  of  true  with  the  line  of  the  stem,  some 
engines  have  a  trick  of  raising  the  valve  away  from  the 
seat,  and  holding  it  there.  This  generally  happens 
going  into  a  station ;  and,  when  steam  is  applied  in 
starting  out,  an  empty  roar  sounds  through  the  stack. 
Moving  the  valve  with  the  reverse-lever  by  quick  jerks 
will  generally  reseat  a  cocked  valve,  but  sometimes  it 
gets  stuck  so  fast  that  it  has  to  be  hammered  out  of 
the  yoke. 

When  a  locomotive  shows  the  symptoms  which  in- 
dicate a  broken  valve,  a  broken  bridge,  or  a  cocked 
valve,  the  engineer  should  exhaust  every  means  of 
testing  the  matter  from  the  outside  before  he  begins 
an  interior  inspection  by  raising  the  steam-chest  cover. 
If  jerking  the  valve  with  the  reverse-lever,  or  moving 
the  engine  a  little,  will  not  stop  the  blow,  he  should 
disconnect  the  valve-stem,  and  shake  the  valve  by  that 
means. 

When  a  valve  breaks,  disabling  its  side  of  the  en- 
gine so  badly  that  it  cannot  be  used,  the  valve  should 
be  taken  out,  and  a  piece  of  strong  pine-plank  secured 
over  the  ports. 

BROKEN    STEAM-CHEST    COVER. 

A  very  serious  and  troublesome  accident,  which  may 
come  under  the  head  of  steam-distribution  gear,  is  the 
breaking  of  a  steam-chest  or  of  a  steam-chest  cover.  It 
takes  skillful  management  to  get  an  engine  along  when 
this  has  happened.  The  most  effectual  way  to  restrain 
loss  of  steam  when  a  chest  or  cover  has  broken,  is  to 
slack  up  the  steam-pipe,  and  slip  a  piece  of  iron  plate, 
lined  with  sheet-rubber,  leather,  canvas,  or  any  other 


144  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

substance  that  will  help  to  make  a  steam-tight  joint,  into 
the  lower  joint  of  the  steam-pipe.  If  this  is  properly 
done,  it  ends  the  trouble,  when  the  joints  are  tight- 
ened up.  But  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  loosening 
steamp-pipe  joints  in  a  hot  smoke-box  are  often  in- 
surmountable, especially  when  the  nuts  and  bolts  are 
solid  from  corrosion,  which  is  generally  the  case  where 
they  have  not  been  touched  for  months.  In  such  a 
case  it  is  better  to  resort  to  the  more  clumsy  contriv- 
ance of  fitting  pieces  of  wood  into  the  openings  to  the 
steam-passage,  and  bracing  them  in  place  by  means  of 
the  steam-chest  bolts.  A  man  of  any  ingenuity  can 
generally,  by  this  means,  save  himself  the  humiliation 
of  being  towed  home,  and  yet  avoid  spending  much 
time  over  the  operation.  When  the  engineer  has  suc- 
ceeded in  securing  means  for  preventing  the  escape  of 
steam,  the  main  rod  must  be  taken  down,  and  the 
valve-stem  rod  disconnected  from  the  rocker-arm.  In 
this  instance  the  piston  needs  no  further  attention, 
after  the  main  rod  has  been  disconnected ;  for  there 
will  be  no  ingress  of  steam  to  the  cylinder  to  endanger 
its  safety. 

STEAM-PIPE    BURST. 

The  breaking  of  a  steam-pipe  in  the  smoke-box  is 
even  a  more  harassing  mishap  than  a  burst  steam- 
chest  or  cover.  The  only  remedy  for  this  is  the  fast- 
ening of  an  iron  plate  to  the  top  joint  of  the  steam- 
pipe,  thereby  closing  up  the  opening.  A  heavy  plug 
of  hard  wood  may  be  driven  into  the  opening,  and 
braced  there  for  a  short  run ;  but  such  a  stopper  is 


ACCIDENTS    TO    THE    VALVE-MOTION.          145 

hard  to  keep  in  place,  owing  to  the  shrinkage  caused 
by  the  intense  heat  of  the  smoke-box. 

TESTING   THE   VALVES. 

An  experienced  engineer  will  most  easily  determine 
the  existence  of  leaks  between  the  valves  and  their 
seats  when  the  engine  is  working,  and  the  indications 
of  that  weakness  have  already  be  noticed.  But  it 
sometimes  happens  that  a  man  wishes  to  test  the  con- 
dition of  the  valves  when  the  engine  is  at  rest.  This 
can  be  most  readily  accomplished  by  placing  the  engine 
so  that  the  rocker-arm  stands  in  the  vertical  position. 
Open  the  smoke-box  door  so  that  the  exhaust  nozzles 
can  be  seen.  Now  block  the  wheels,  and  give  the 
engine  steam.  If  the  valve  blows,  the  steam  will  be 
seen  issuing  from  the  nozzle  on  the  side  under  exam- 
ination. As  the  tendency  of  a  slide-valve  is  to  wear 
the  seat  concave,  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  valve  is 
tight  on  the  centre,  yet  leaky  in  other  positions.  Mov- 
ing the  valve  with  the  reverse-lever  as  far  as  can  be 
done  without  opening  the  steam-port,  will  sometimes 
demonstrate  this.  The  cranks  should  be  placed  on 
the  eighths  positions  when  the  valves  are  being  tested. 

TO    IDENTIFY    BLOW    FROM    BALANCING-STRIPS. 

When  balancing-strips  on  top  of  valve  leak,  the 
easiest  way  to  find  out  which  side  is  at  fault  is  to  place 
the  valve  in  the  middle  of  the  seat  aud  open  the 
throttle  lightly.  That  position  puts  the  hole  in  the 
valve  over  the  exhaust  port  and  the  escaping  steam 
has  an  open  road  to  the  atmosphere. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

ACCIDENTS   TO    CYLINDERS  AND  STEAM   CON- 
NECTIONS. 

IMPORTANCE     OF     THE     PISTON    IN     THE     TRAIN     OF 
MECHANISM. 

THE  piston  is  an  autocratic  member  of  the  machine. 
For  thousands  of  miles  it  toils  to  push  the  engine 
ahead,  everything  going  smoothly  so  long  as  it  is  con- 
fined to  its  recurring  journey ;  but  let  any  attachment 
break,  or  a  key  fly  out  that  will  increase  the  piston's 
travel,  and  away  the  piston  goes,  right  through  a 
cylinder-head. 

CAUSES   THAT     LEAD     TO    BROKEN    CYLINDER-HEADS. 

The  causes  which  most  commonly  lead  the  piston 
to  smash  out  cylinder-heads,  are  broken  cross-heads, 
broken  piston-rods,  and  broken  main-rods.  A  main 
crank-pin  or  wrist-pin  breaking,  is  almost  certain  to 
leave  one  end  of  the  cylinder  a  wreck.  These  may  be 
termed  the  major  causes  for  breaking  out  cylinder- 
heads;  but  there  are  numerous  minor  causes,  which 
are  scarcely  less  destructive.  A  piston-rod  key  be- 
gins to  work  loose.  It  is  hammered  down  occasion- 

146 


ACCIDENTS    TO    CYLINDERS,  ETC.  147 

ally,  which  does  not  improve  its  fit ;  and  some  day  it 
jumps  out  altogether,  letting  the  piston  go  on  a  voy- 
age of  discovery.  A  machinist  of  the  careless  sort  has 
been  examining  a  piston's  packing,  and,  in  screwing 
up  the  follower-bolts,  one  of  them  gets  a  twist  too 
much.  Drilling  out  a  follower-bolt  is  a  troublesome 
operation,  so  Mr.  Careless  lets  it  go.  On  the  road 
this  head  drops  out,  -and  a  broken  cylinder-head  is  the 
consequence.  One  of  the  worst  causes  of  breakage  to 
a  cylinder  that  I  have  ever  seen,  was  caused  by  the 
packing-ring  of  the  piston  catching  in  the  steam-pas- 
sage. Part  of  the  ring  broke  off,  and  wedged  itself 
between  the  advancing  piston  and  the  cylinder.  The 
wedge  split  the  cylinder  open,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  piston  acted  like  a  pulverizer  upon  the  fragment 
of  the  cylinder. 

BROKEN    CYLINDER-HEADS    OFTEN   PREVENTABLE. 

The  causes  which  eventually  lead  to  broken  cylin- 
der-heads often  originate  from  preventable  strains. 
Thus,  cross-heads  are  frequently  fractured  by  main- 
rod  connections  pounding;  and  weaknesses,  that  ulti- 
mately bring  crank-pins  to  disaster,  originate  in  a  sim- 
ilar way.  A  loose  piston-key  is  liable  to  crack  the 
piston-rod,  if  it  does  not  give  trouble  by  jumping  out. 
Loose  guides  have  a  tendency  to  spring  piston-rods, 
and  throw  unnecessary  strain  upon  them.  Pistons  lined 
out  of  true  are  dangerous  for  the  same  reason.  And  so 
the  list  of  potential  accidents  grows.  Like  the  steady 
water-drop  that  wears  into  the  adamantine  rock,  tn- 


148  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

fling  defects,  assisted  by  time's  action,  prove  stronger 
than  the  most  massive  machine. 

When  anything  happens  to  permit  the  piston  to 
break  out  a  cylinder-head  the  engine  can  be  put  in 
running  trim  by  taking  off  the  valve-rod  and  the  main- 
rod,  and  setting  the  valve  on  the  center  of  the  valve- 
seat.  Blocking  the  cross-head  is  unnecessary,  if  the 
break  will  allow  the  escaping  steam  to  pass  through ; 
for  then  no  further  tension  can  be  puc  upon  the  piston 
to  cause  further  damage.  If,  by  an  extraordinary 
freak  of  good  luck,  a  piston-rod  breaks  without  causing 
other  damage,  the  cylinder-head  must  be  taken  off, 
and  the  piston  removed.  Then  cover  the  ports,  and 
take  down  the  main-rod  on  that  side.  Or,  if  the  cross- 
head  is  all  right,  the  main-rod  may  be  left  untouched. 
When  the  cross-head  breaks,  it  generally  entails  taking 
out  the  piston,  centering  the  valve,  and  taking  down 
the  main-rod  on  that  side. 

WHEN    A    MAIN-ROD    BREAKS. 

With  a  broken  main-rod  which  does  not  knock  out 
the  cylinder-head,  the  main  rod  and  valve-rod  should 
be  taken  down,  the  valve  secured  on  the  center  of  the 
seat,  and  the  cross-head  blocked  with  the  piston  at 
the  back  end  of  the  cylinder. 

CRANK-PIN    BROKEN. 

For  a  broken  main  crank-pin,  the  above  method  of 
stripping  the  engine  will  do  with  the  addition  of  taking 
down  both  side-rods.  An  accident  which  disables  one 
side-rod,  requires  that  the  other  one  shall  be  taken 


ACCIDENTS    TO    CYLINDERS,  ETC.  149 

down  also,  or  there  will  be  trouble  when  the  engine  is 
attempted  to  be  run  with  one  side-rod.  The  rod 
might  go  all  right  so  long  as  no  slipping  happened. 
But,  if  the  engine  began  to  slip  while  passing  over 
the  center,  the  side-rod  would  have  no  leverage  on 
the  back-crank  to  slip  its  wheel ;  and  a  broken  rod  or 
crank-pin  would  almost  certainly  ensue. 

BROKEN    SIDE-ROD. 

A  broken  side-rod,  that  is  not  accompanied  by  other 
damage,  requires  both  side-rods  to  be  taken  down. 
All  the  inconvenience  arising  from  this  is,  that  the 
engine  is  more  liable  to  slip.  But,  with  dry  rails,  the 
ordinary  eight-wheel  engine  can  get  along  very  well 
without  its  side-rods. 

With  six-  or  eight-wheel  connected  engines  different 
treatment  is  necessary.  In  case  the  back  section  of  a 
side-rod  of  a  six-  or  eight-wheel  connected  locomotive 
should  break  it  would  be  necessary  to  take  down  the 
same  section  on  the  other  side.  If  the  front  side-rod 
of  a  six  connected  or  consolidation  engine  broke,  it 
would  be  all  right  to  take  down  the  same  section  on 
the  other  side.  In  case  the  middle  section  side-rod  of 
a  consolidation  engine  it  is  generally  necessary  to  take 
down  all  the  side-rods. 

THROTTLE    DISCONNECTED. 

Any  accident  to  the  throttle-valve  or  its  attachments, 
which  deprives  the  engineer  of  power  to  shut  off  steam, 
is  very  dangerous,  and  calls  for  prompt  action.  Lose 
no  time  in  reducing  the  head  of  steam  to  fifty  or  sixty 


ISO  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

pounds,  or  to  the  pressure  where  the  engine  can  easily 
be  managed  with  the  reverse-lever. 

With  the  aid  of  a  power-brake,  an  engineer  can  get 
along  fairly  with  a  light  train,  after  an  accident  has 
happened  which  prevents  the  closing  of  the  steam  from 
the  cylinders ;  but  constant  vigilance  and  thoughtful 
labor  are  needed. 

WHAT    CAUSES    A    DISCONNECTED    THROTTLE. 

The  most  common  causes  of  trouble  with  the 
throttle  are  the  breaking  or  working  out  of  one  of  the 
bolts  that  operate  the  valve  within  the  dome,  the 
breaking  of  a  valve-rod,  or  working  off  of  nuts  that 
should  secure  the  connection.  Where  the  throttle 
fails  with  the  valve  closed,  and  the  engineer  finds  it 
necessary  to  take  the -dome-cover  off  to  prevent  his 
engine  from  being  hauled  in,  he  will  generally  find  the 
trouble  to  lie  with  the  connections  mentioned,  or  with 
the  bolts  belonging  to  the  bell-crank,  that  is  located 
near  the  bottom  of  the  stand-pipe.  Sometimes  the 
nuts  on  the  top  of  the  throttle-valve  stem  work  off : 
but,  in  such  a  case,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  opening 
the  valve ;  it  is  when  the  engineer  wants  to  close  it, 
that  the  discomfiture  comes  in.  Some  steam-pipes 
are  provided  with  a  release-valve  near  the  throttle,  to 
relieve  the  pipe  from  intense  back-pressure  when  the 
engine  is  reversed.  The  sudden  reversing  of  an  en- 
gine sometimes  jerks  this  valve  out  of  its  seat,  leaving 
an  open  passage  between  the  boiler  and  steam-chest. 
This  acts  like  a  mild  case  of  unshipped  throttle,  and 
must  be  controlled  in  a  similar  way. 


ACCIDENTS    TO    CYLINDERS,  ETC.  15 1 

BURSTING   A    DRY    PIPE. 

The  bursting  of  a  dry  pipe  is  similar  in  effect  to  the 
action  of  a  throttle  becoming  disconnected  while  open  ; 
and  it  may  ever  prove  harder  to  control,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  opening.  Engineer  Halliday  had  a 
trying  time  with  a  case  of  this  kind.  While  swinging 
along  the  E.,  F.  &  G.  road,  with  a  heavy  train  of 
freight,  a  herd  of  horses  ran  in  from  an  open  crossing- 
gate,  and  started  up  the  track  just  in  front  of  the 
engine.  As  there  was  a  bridge  a  short  distance  ahead, 
Halliday  reversed  the  engine  in  his  anxiety  to  prevent 
an  accident.  The  train  stopped  for  an  instant,  when 
the  engine  began  to  push  it  back.  Halliday  tried  to 
throw  the  lever  to  the  center,  but  never  before  had  he 
felt  such  a  pressure  acting  upon*  it.  Again  and  again 
he  tried  to  throw  the  lever  over;  but  every  time  it 
proved  too  formidable  a  struggle,  and  the  catch  found 
its  way  into  the  full-back  notch.  Meanwhile  the  train 
was  gaining  speed  in  the  wrong  direction,  and  a  pas- 
senger train  was  not  many  miles  behind.  Beginning 
to  realize  the  true  state  of  affairs,  Halliday  called  for 
brakes,  opened  the  fire-box  door,  closed  the  dampers, 
and  started  the  injector.  Then  he  directed  the  fireman 
to  throw  some  bucketfuls  of  water  upon  the  fire,  while 
he  tied  down  the  whistle-lever,  letting  the  steam  blow. 
The  promptest  means  for  reducing  the  pressure  of  steam 
were  now  in  operation,  and  his  next  move  was  to  try 
the  reverse-lever  again.  Both  men  grasped  the  lever 
and,  by  a  combined  effort,  forced  it  past  the  center; 
and  Samson's  hair  was  cut.  It  was  afterwards  found 


152  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

that  a  long  rent  had  opened  in  the  dry  pipe,  letting 
the  full  boiler-pressure  upon  the  valves,  which  moved 
hard  through  being  dry  ;  the  hot  gases  pumped  through 
them  in  reverse  motion,  having  licked  off  every  trace 
of  lubricating  unguent. 

OTHER  THROTTLE  ACCIDENTS. 

Cases  of  serious  trouble  resulting  from  accidents  to 
throttle-connections  would  be  easy  to  multiply.  Two 
incidents  with  similar  originating  conditions,  but  with 
very  different  results,  will  suffice.  Engineer  Phelps 
was  pulling  a  full  train  of  coal  over  rails  that  were  nei- 
ther wet  nor  dry,  and  had  just  enough  frost  upon  them 
to  be  wicked.  He  was  having  a  bad  time  slipping,  but 
was  working  patiently  along,  when  the  throttle  became 
disconnected  with  the  valve  open.  The  engine  at  once 
started  on  a  whirl  of  slipping  that  threatened  disaster, 
but  it  was  immediately  controlled  by  the  engineer  pull- 
ing the  reverse-lever  to  the  center  notch.  Engineer 
Cook  of  the  F.,  G.,  &  H.  road,  was  not  so  fortunate 
when  the  stem  of  his  throttle-valve  broke  on  a  slippery 
day.  As  the  wheels  began  spinning  round,  Cook  lost 
his  head,  and  kept  working  at  the  throttle-lever  to 
try  to  stop.  Seeing  this  was  of  no  avail,  he  grasped 
the  sand-lever,  and  tugged  vigorously  at  the  valves. 
A  season  of  tumult  succeeded;  and,  when  the  engine 
stopped  presently,  it  was  found  to  be  a  deplorable 
wreck.  It  was  hard  to  tell,  from  the  look  of  the  ruin, 
what  part  of  the  locomotive  broke  first ;  but  the  crank- 
pins  on  one  side  were  cleaned  off,  and  the  piston  was 
out  through  the  cylinder-head.  The  side-rod  on  the 


ACCIDENTS    TO    CYLINDERS,  ETC.  1 53 

other  side  broke  close  to  the  strap,  and  was  twisted  up 
like  a  spiral  spring. 

POUNDING    OF   THE    WORKING-PARTS. 

It  is  good  for  an  ambitious  young  engineer,  who 
desires  to  thoroughly  master  his  calling,  to  walk  occa- 
sionally into  the  room  where  a  well-managed  automatic 
cut-off  engine  is  at  work,  and  watch  its'  smooth,  noise- 
less movements.  There  he  may  find  an  ideal  of  how 
an  engine  should  run.  The  nature  of  the  work  per- 
formed by  a  locomotive  engine  prevents  it  from  being 
operated  noiselessly,  and  the  smoothness  of  its  action 
must  always  compare  unfavorably  with  a  well-con- 
structed stationary  engine;  but  the  connections  which 
transmit  the  power  of  a  locomotive  should  be  free  from 
knock  or  jar,  if  they  are  properly  proportioned,  and 
skillfully  put  together. 

SOME    CAUSES    OF   POUNDING. 

To  an  engineer  with  a  well-regulated  mind,  a  pound 
about  the  engine  is  a  source  of  continual  irritation.  If 
a  pound  arises  from  a  cause  which  can  be  remedied  by 
an  engineer,  the  careful  man  will  soon  perform  the 
necessary  work  to  end  the  noise.  Sometimes  the 
origin  of  a  pound  is  hard  to  discover:  very  often  it  is 
beyond  the  power  of  the  engineer  to  stop  it.  Some 
makes  of  locomotives  always  pound  when  working  in 
full  gear.  With  such  an  engine,  a  nervous  engineer 
will  fuss,  pushing  up  wedges  until  they  stick  fast,  and 
cause  no  end  of  grief  to  get  them  down  again.  He 
will  key  up  the  main-rod  connections  till  they  run  hot, 


154  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

and  he  will  prophesy  that  the  engine  is  going  to  pieces. 
But  the  engine  hangs  together  all  the  same,  and  is  only 
suffering  from  want  of  lead,  or  want  of  compression. 
Where  an  engine  is  deficient  in  the  cushioning  to  the 
piston,  due  to  compression  or  lead,  the  momentum  of 
the  piston  and  connecting-rod  is  suddenly  checked  at 
the  end  of  each  stroke.  The  concussion  to  these 
working-parts  is  so  great  that  pounding  will  be  pro- 
duced. As  the  engine  gets  hooked  towards  the  center, 
this  pounding  will  cease,  because  compression  and  the 
lead  opening  increase  as  the  motion  is  notched  back. 
The  most  common  causes  for  pounding  with  loco- 
motives are  worn  main-rod  connections,  and  driving- 
boxes  too  loose  in  the  jawrs,  or  the  brasses  loose  in  the 
driving-boxes.  If  side-rods  are  out  of  tram,  or  have 
the  brasses  badly  worn,  they  sometimes  pound  when 
passing  the  centers.  A  cross-head  will  pound  when 
the  guides  are  worn  very  open.  This  last  defect  is 
liable  to  cause  a  bent  piston-rod.  A  piston  makes  a 
tremendous  pound  when  a  badly  connected  rod  allows 
it  to  touch  a  cylinder-head,  and  a  very  ominous  pound 
is  produced  when  the  spider  gets  loose  on  the  piston- 
rod,  and  a  piston-rod  loose  in  the  cross-head  will  make 
itself  heard  all  over  the  engine. 

LOCATING    A    MYSTERIOUS    POUND. 

Several  years  ago  a  very  troublesome  and  mysterious 
pound  caused  the  writer  a  great  deal  of  annoyance. 
He  was  running  an  old  engine,  with  cylinders  that  had 
been  bored  out  until  no  counter-bore  was  left.  The 
piston  had  worn  a  seat  leaving  a  small  ridge  at  the  end 


ACCIDENTS    TO    CYLINDERS,  ETC.  155 

of  its  back  travel.  The  main  rod  was  taken  down  one 
day;  and,  in  putting  it  up  again,  the  travel  of  the 
piston  was  slightly  altered.  The  engine  started  out 
with  a  pound,  and  kept  it  up.  If  any  of  my  readers 
have  been  working  an  engine  that  seemed  to  hang 
together  merely  by  luck,  away  on  construction  work 
on  the  wild  prairies,  with  no  machine-shops  in  the  rear 
to  appeal  to  for  aid  or  counsel,  with  all  his  own  repair- 
ing to  do  without  tools  or  skilled  assistance,  they  will 
understand  the  difficulty  experienced  in  locating  that 
pound  at  the  back  end  of  the  cylinder. 

A  cylinder  loose  on  the  frame,  or  a  broken  frame, 
will  jar  the  whole  machine ;  and  both  of  these  defects 
are  serious,  and  demand  increased  care  in  taking  the 
engine  along  with  the  train.  Loose  driving-box 
brasses  produce  a  pound  which  is  sometimes  difficult 
to  locate.  In  searching  for  the  cause  of  a  pound,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  place  the  engine  with  one  of  the  cranks 
on  the  quarter,  block  the  wheels,  and  have  the  fireman 
open  the  throttle  a  little,  and  reverse  the  engine  with 
the  steam  on.  By  closely  watching  in  turn  each  con- 
fection, as  the  steam  through  the  piston  gives  a  pull 
or  a  thrust  to  the  cross-head,  the  defect  which  causes 
the  pound  may  be  located.  Never  run  with  a  serious 
pound  inside  of  a  cylinder.  It  is  an  almost  certain 
indication  that  a  smash  is  imminent. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
OFF  THE  TRACK.— ACCIDENTS  TO  RUNNING-GEAR. 

GETTING   DITCHED. 

THERE  is  something  pathetic  in  the  spectacle  of  a 
noble  locomotive,  whose  speed  capabilities  are  so  won- 
derful, lying  with  its  wheels  in  the  air,  or  sunk  to  the 
hubs  in  mud  or  gravel.  Kindred  sights  are,  a  ship 
thrown  high  and  dry  upon  the  beach,  away  from  the 
element  that  gives  it  power  and  beauty;  or  a  monster 
whale,  the  leviathan  of  the  deep,  lying  stranded  and 
helpless  upon  the  shore. 

Few  engineers  have  run  many  years  without  getting 
their  engine  off  the  track  in  some  way, — over  the  ends 
of  switches,  by  jumping  bad  track,  or  getting  into 
the  ditch  through  some  serious  accident,  collision  or 
otherwise.  Most  of.  them  have  felt  that  shock  of  the 
engine  thumping  over  the  ties,  and  momentarily  won- 
dered in  what  position  it  was  going  to  stop;  doing  all 
in  their  power,  meanwhile,  to  stop,  and  prevent 
damage. 

DEALING   WITH    SUDDEN   EMERGENCIES. 

Of  course,  an  engineer's  first  duty  is  to  conduct  his 
engine  in  a  way  that  will  avoid  accident  so  far  as 

156 


OFF   THE    7 'RACK.  1 57 

human  foresight  can  aid  in  doing  so;  but,  when  £.n 
accident  is  inevitable,  his  next  duty  is  to  use  every 
exertion  towards  reducing  its  severity.  The  most 
common  form  of  serious  accident  occurring  on  our 
railroads  is  a  collision.  Rear-end  collisions  occur  most 
frequently,  although  head-to-head  collisions  annually 
claim  many  victims.  When  an  accident  of  this  kind  is 
impending,  the  engineer  generally  has  but  a  few  seconds 
of  warning;  but  these  brief  seconds  well  utilized  often 
save  many  lives,  and  impress  the  principal  actor  with 
the  stamp  of  true  heroism.  Rounding  a  curve  at  a 
high  speed,  an  engineer  perceives  another  train 
approaching.  Quick  as  thought  he  shuts  off  steam, 
applies  the  brake,  and  opens  the  sand-valves.  This 
will  take  about  ten  seconds'  time;  and,  if  the  engine 
is  running  thirty  miles  an  hour,  the  train  will  pass  over 
forty-four  feet  each  second.  Assuming  that  no  reduc- 
tion of  speed  has  taken  place  till  all  the  appliances  for 
stopping  are  in  operation,  four  hundred  and  forty  feet 
will  be  passed  over  as  a  preliminary  to  stopping.  With 
the  automatic  Westinghouse  brake,  application  and 
retarding  power  are  almost  simultaneous.  To  reverse 
the  engine  when  driver-brakes  are  in  use  is  to  cause 
sliding  of  wheels  without  helping  to  stop  the  train 
quickly.  Until  he  has  applied  all  means  of  reducing 
speed,  an  engineer  rarely  or  never  consults  his  own 
safety,  however  certain  death  may  be  staring  him  in 
the  face.  But  after  the  brakes  are  known  to  be  doing 
their  work,  aided  by  sanded  rails,  personal  safety  is 
considered.  A  glance  at  the  position  of  the  two  trains 
tells  if  they  are  coming  violently  together;  and  the 


158  LOCO MO 7Y VE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

engineer  jumps  off,  or  remains  on  the  engine,  as  he 
deems  best.  This  applies  to  trains  equipped  with 
continuous  brakes. 

STOPPING   A   FREIGHT    TRAIN    IN    CASE    OF   DANGER. 

With  freight  trains  where  the  means  of  stopping  are 
not  immediately  under  the  hand  of  the  engineer,  he 
must  call  for  brakes  on  the  first  indication  of  danger, 
and  do  all  that  a  reversed  engine  can  achieve  to  aid  in 
stopping  the  train.  Where  a  driver-brake  is  used,  the 
engineer  will  have  to  watch  the  reversed  engine ;  be- 
cause the  wheels  will  soon  begin  sliding,  even  on  thick 
sand,  and  their  retarding  power  will  be  seriously 
diminished.  To  prevent  this,  the  engineer  should  let 
off  the  driver-brake,  and  open  the  cylinder-cocks,  till 
the  wheels  begin  to  revolve,  when  the  brake  may  be 
applied  again.  Working  and  watching  in  this  way 
greatly  assist  in  stopping  a  train,  and  preventing  the 
flattening  of  wheels. 

SAVING   THE   HEATING-SURFACES. 

Should  the  engine  get  into  the  ditch,  the  engineer's 
first  duty  is  to  save  the  e(ngine  from  getting  burned, 
unless  saving  of  life,  or  protecting  the  train,  demands 
his  attention.  If  the  engine  is  in  a  position  where  the 
flues  or  fire-box  crown  will  be  left  without  water,  the 
fire  should  be  quenched  as  quickly  as  possible.  Sand 
or  gravel  thrown  over  the  fire,  and  then  saturated 
with  water,  is  a  good  and  prompt  way  of  extinguish- 
ing the  fire. 


OFF   THE    TRACK.  1 59 


GETTING   THE    ENGINE    ON   THE    TRACK. 

It  can  be  understood  in  a  few  minutes  after  derail- 
ment whether  or  not  the  engine  can  be  put  back  on 
the  track  without  assistance.  Sometimes  a  pull  from 
another  engine  is  all  that  is  required:  again,  nothing 
can  be  done  without  the  aid  of  heavy  tools  to  raise  it 
up.  In  this  case,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  sending 
for  the  wrecking  outfit.  It  often  happens  that  an  en- 
gine gets  off  the  track  while  switching  among  sidings, 
and  sinks  down  in  the  road-bed  so  as  to  be  helpless. 
In  an  event  of  this  kind,  jacking  up  a  few  inches  will 
often  enable  the  engine  to  work  back  to  the  rails-. 
Before  beginning  to  hoist  with  the  screw-jacks,  some 
labor  can  generally  be  saved  by  putting  pieces  of  iron 
between  the  bottom  of  the  driving-boxes  and  the 
pedestal-braces.  As  the  wheels  begin  to  rise  out  of 
the  gravel,  pieces  of  plank  or  wooden  wedges  should 
be  driven  under  them  to  hold  good  every  inch  raised. 
Where  the  attempt  is  made  to  work  an  engine  on  the 
rails  by  means  of  wrecking- frogs,  wooden  filling  should 
be  laid  down  crosswise  to  prevent  the  wheels  from 
sinking  between  the  ties,  should  they  slip  off  the 
frogs.  Where  jacking  up  has  to  be  resorted  to,  there 
is  often  difficulty  experienced  in  getting  up  the  engine- 
truck;  as  raising  the  frame  usually  leaves  the  truck 
behind  in  the  mire.  The  best  plan  is  to  jack  up  the 
front  of  the  engine  to  the  desired  level,  then  with  a 
rail  well  manned  pry  up  the  truck,  and  hold  it  in  posi- 
tion by  driving  shims  under  the  wheels.  An  engine 


l6o  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

will  generally  go  on  the  rails  easiest  the  way  it  comes 
off. 

When  a  derailed  engine  is  being  pulled  on  the  track 
by  another  engine,  the  work  should  be  done  carefully, 
and  with  proper  deliberation.  When  everything  is 
made  ready  for  a  pull,  some  men  act  as  if  the  best 
plan  was  to  start  both  engines  off  with  full  throttle ; 
and  this  often  leaves  the  situation  worse  than  it  was  at 
first.  When  truck-wheels  stand  at  an  angle  to  the 
track,  it  is  often  necessary  to  jerk  them  in  line  by 
attaching  a  chain  or  rope  to  one  side.  A  wrecking- 
frog  should  be  laid  in  front  of  the  wheel  outside  the 
rail,  and  blocking  before  the  inside  wheel,  sufficient  to 
raise  the  tread  of  the  wheel  above  the  level  of  the 
rail.  Then  move  ahead  slowly,  and  the  chances  are 
that  the  wheels  will  go  on  the  rails.  Sometimes  the 
easiest  way  is  to  open  the  track  at  a  joint,  move  it 
aside  to  the  line  of  the  wheels,  and  spike  it  there,  then 
draw  or  run  the  engine  on. 

Having  an  engine  off  the  track  is  a  position  where 
good  judgment  is  more  potent  than  a  volume  of  writ- 
ten directions. 

UNDERSTANDING   THE    RUNNING-GEAR. 

The  driving-wheels,  axles,  boxes,  frames,  with  the 
trucks  and  all  their  attachments,  are  somewhat  dirty 
articles  to  handle.  The  examination  of  how  they  are 
put  together,  and  how  they  are  hanging  together,  is 
pursued  under  soiling  circumstances.  Perhaps  this  is 
the.  reason  these  things  are  studied  less  than  they 
ought  to  be.  To  creep  under  a  greasy  locomotive  to 


ACCIDENTS    TO   RUNNING-GEAR.  l6l 

examine  wheels,  axles,  and  truck-boxes  is  not  a  digni- 
fied proceeding  by  any  means ;  but  it  is  a  very  useful 
one.  The  running-gear  is  the  fundamental  part  of  the 
machine,  and  its  whole  make-up  should  be  thoroughly 
understood.  The  builds  of  trucks  are  so  multifarious 
that  no  specified  directions  can  be  given  respecting 
accidents  happening  to  them.  There  is,  therefore, 
the  greater  need  for  an  engineer's  familiarizing  him- 
self with  the  make-up  of  his  running-gear,  so  that 
when  an  accident  happens  he  will  know  exactly  what 
to  do.  Disraeli  said:  "  There  is  nothing  so  likely  to 
happen  as  the  unexpected."  This  applies  very  aptly 
to  railroad  engineering.  Industrious  accumulation  of 
knowledge  respecting  every  part  of  the  machine  is  the 
proper  way  to  defy  the  unexpected. 

BROKEN   DRIVING-SPRING. 

The  running-gear  of  some  engines  is  so  arranged 
that,  in  case  a  driving-spring  breaks  on  the  road,  it 
can  readily  be  replaced  if  a  spare  spring  is  carried. 
With  the  average  run  of  engines,  however,  and  the 
accumulating  complication  of  brake-gear  attached  to 
the  frames,  the  replacing  of  a  driving-spring  is  a  tedious 
operation,  that  would  involve  too  much  delay  with  an 
engine  attached  to  a  train.  Consequently  engineers 
seldom  attempt  to  change  a  broken  spring.  They 
merely  remove  the  attachments  likely  to  shake  out  of 
place,  and  block  the  engine  up  so  as  to  get  home 
safely.  When  a  forward  driving-spring  breaks,  it  is 
generally  best  to  take  the  spring  out  with  its  saddle 
and  hangers.  Then  run  the  back  drivers  up  on  wedges 


1 62  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE   RUNNING. 

to  take  the  weight  off  the  forward  drivers,  and  put  a 
piece  of  hard  wood  or  a  rubber  spring  between  the  top 
of  the  box  and  the  frame.  Now  run  the  forward 
drivers  on  the  wedges,  which  will  take  the  weight  off 
the  back  drivers,  and  with  a  pinch-bar  pry  up  the  end 
of  the  equalizer  till  that  lever  stands  level,  and  block 
it  in  that  position  by  jamming  a  piece  of  wood  be- 
tween it  and  the  frame.  For  a  back  driving-spring, 
this  order  of  procedure  should  be  reversed.  A  back 
driving-spring  is  often  hard  to  get  out  of  its  position ; 
and  it  sometimes  can  be  left  in  place,  as  it  is  not  very 
liable  to  cause  mischief. 

Where  a  spring  drops  its  load  through  a  hanger 
breaking,  the  mishap  can  occasionally  be  remedied  by 
chaining  the  spring  to  the  frame.  Should  this  prove 
impracticable,  the  same  process  must  be  followed  ^s 
that  which  was  made  necessary  by  a  broken  spring. 


EQUALIZER   BROKEN. 

For  a  broken  equalizer,  all  the  pieces  likely  to  shake 
off,  or  to  be  caught  by  the  revolving  wheels,  must 
come  out ;  and  both  driving-boxes  on  that  side  must 
be  blocked  on  top  with  wood  or  rubber.  Where  good 
screw-jacks  are  carried,  it  will  often  prove  time-saving 
to  raise  the  engine  by  jacking  up  at  the  back  end  of 
the  frame  instead  of  running  it  up  on  wedges.  Where 
the  wedge  plan  is  likely  to  prove  easiest,  it  must  be 
adopted  only  on  a  straight  track;  and  then  too  much 
care  cannot  be  used  to  prevent  the  wheels  from  leav- 
ing the  rails. 


ACCIDENTS    TO   RUNNING-GEAR.  163 


ACCIDENTS   TO    TRUCKS. 

The  breaking  of  an  engine-truck  spring  which  trans- 
mits the  weight  to  the  boxes  by  means  of  an  equal- 
izer, requires  that  the  equalizer  should  be  taken  out, 
and  the  frame  blocked  above  the  boxes.  This  block- 
ing above  the  boxes  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  two 
unyielding  iron  surfaces,  which  would  otherwise  come 
together,  -from  hammering  each  other  to  pieces. 
Wood  or  rubber  has  more  elasticity,  and  acts  as  a 
spring.  Whatever  may  be  the  form  of  truck  used,  if 
the  breaking  of  a  spring  allows  the  rigid  frame  to  drop 
upon  the  top  of  one  or  more  boxes,  it  must  be  raised, 
and  a  yielding  substance  inserted,  if  the  engine  is  to 
be  run  even  at  a  moderate  speed,  and  the  engineer 
wishes  to  avoid  further  breakage.  Sometimes  truck- 
springs,  especially  with  tanks,  are  so  arranged  that 
the  removal  of  one  will  take  away  the  support  of  the 
frame  at  that  point.  In  such  a  case,  a  cross-tie  or 
other  suitable  piece  of  wood  must  be  fitted  into  the 
place  to  support  the  weight  which  the  spring  held  up. 

BROKEN  PONY-TRUCK  CENTER  PIN. 

When  the  center  pin  of  a  pony-truck  breaks  the 
best  remedy  is  to  put  in  a  new  one.  If  that  is  not  at 
hand,  jack  up  the  front  of  the  engine  and  block  down 
the  cross  equalizer  at  back  of  long  equalizer  enough 
to  prevent  forward  end  from  striking  pony-axle. 


164  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 


BROKEN   FRAME. 

A  broken  truck-frame  can  generally  be  held  together 
by  means  of  a  chain,  and  a  piece  of  broken  rail  or 
wooden  beam  to  act  as  a  "  splice."  Should  a  truck- 
wheel  or  axle  break,  it  can  be  chained  up  to  enable 
the  engine  to  reach  the  nearest  side  track  where  new 
wheels  may  be  procured,  or  the  broken  parts  fastened 
so  that  the  engine  may  proceed  carefully  home.  The 
back  wheel  of  an  engine-truck  can  be  chained  up  se- 
curely to  a  rail  or  cross-tie  placed  across  the  top  of  the 
engine-frame.  If  an  accident  happens  to  the  front 
wheels,  and  it  proves  impracticable  to  get  a  sound  pair, 
the  truck  should  be  turned  round  when  a  side  track  is 
reached.  An  accident  to  the  wheels  or  axle  of  a 
tender-truck  can  be  managed  in  the  same  way  as  an 
engine-truck,  but  the  cross-beam  to  support  the 
chained  weight  must  be  placed  across  the  top  of  the 
tender.  A  bent  axle  or  broken  wheel  that  prevents  a 
truck  from  following  the  rail,  can  be  run  to  the  nearest 
side  track  by  fastening  the  wheels  so  that  they  will 
slide  on  the  rails. 

BROKEN    DRIVING  AXLES,    WHEELS,    AND    TIRES. 

Accidents  of  this  nature  often  disable  the  engine  en- 
tirely; but  sometimes  the  breakage  occurs  in  such  a 
way  that  the  engine  can  run  itself  home,  or  into  a  side 
track,  by  good  and  careful  management.  Driving- 
axles  generally  break  in  the  box,  or  between  the  box 
and  the  wheel.  When  this  happens  to  a  main  driving- 
axle,  or  when  anything  happens  to  the  forward  driving- 


ACCIDENTS    TO   RUNNING-GEAR.  165 

wheel  or  tire  of  such  a  serious  nature  that  the  engine 
can  not  be  moved  until  the  wheel  is  raised  away  from 
the  rail,  the  engineer's  first  duty  is  to  take  down  the 
main  rod  on  that  side,  and  secure  the  piston,  then  to 
take  down  both  of  the  side  rods.  Cases  could  be  cited 
where  engineers  have  brought  in  engines  with  broken 
axles  without  disconnecting  any  thing,  but  these  men 
did  not  take  the  safe  side  by  a  long  way. 

The  rods  being  disconnected,  run  the  disabled,  wheel 
up  on  a  wedge  or  block  of  wood,  and  secure  it  in  the 
raised  position  by  driving  blocking  between  the  axle- 
box  and  the  pedestal-brace.  To  get  the  box  high 
enough  in  the  jaws,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  remove 
the  spring  and  saddle  from  the  top  of  the  box.  A 
wheel  may  break  and  not  fall  to  pieces,  but  still  be 
dangerous  to  use,  except  for  moving  along  slowly.  A 
tire  may  break,  and  yet  remain  on  the  wheel,  only  re- 
quiring the  most  careful  handling.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  breaking  of  a  wheel  or  tire  may  render  the 
wheel  useless,  when  it  must  be  raised  from  the  rail  the 
same  way  as  was  recommended  for  a  broken  axle,  and 
the  same  precautions  in  regard  to  stripping  that  side 
of  the  engine  must  all  be  taken.  In  the  event  of  an 
accident  happening  which  disables  both  forward  driv- 
ers, they  must  both  be  raised  from  the  rails,  and  the 
engine  pulled  in,  the  truck  and  hind  drivers  supporting 
the  weight.  Both  side-rods  must  come  down. 

The  breaking  of  back  driving-axles,  or  accidents  to 
wheels  or  tires,  is  very  difficult  to  manage;  because 
the  weight  must  be  supported  in  some  way.  The  first 
act  when  such  a  mishap  occurs,  is  to  take  down  both 


l66  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

side-rods.  If  the  engine  can  be  moved  to  the  nearest 
side  track  without  further  change,  take  it  there ;  now 
jack  up  the  back  part  of  the  engine,  and  fasten  two 
pieces  of  rail  by  chaining  or  otherwise  to  the  frames  of 
the  engine,  their  ends  resting  on  the  tank-deck,  so 
that,  when  the  jacks  are  lowered,  the  tank  will  help  to 
support  the  hind  part  of  the  engine. 

I  have  seen  a  case  where  one  piece  of  rail  was 
pushed,  into  the  draw-bar  casting,  and  it  held  the  en- 
gine up  through  a  journey  of  seventy  miles.  If  one 
of  the  back  driving-wheels  can  be  used,  it  lessens  the 
weight  that  has  to  be  borne  by  any  lever  contrivance. 
When  one  wheel  is  disabled,  it  must  be  blocked  up  in 
the  jaws;  and,  should  both  wheels  be  rendered  use- 
less, they  must  both  be  held  up,  so  that  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  weight  may  be  thrown  upon  the  for- 
ward drivers. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

CONNECTING-RODS,  SIDE-RODS,  ,AND  WEDGES. 
CARE     OF    LOCOMOTIVE    RODS. 

WHEN  it  is  found  that  an  engineer  runs  his  engine 
for  months  on  arduous  train  service,  and  has  no  trouble 
with  his  rods,  he  may  safely  be  credited  with  knowing 
his  business,  and  attending  to  it  skillfully.  In  regard 
to  the  keeping  of  the  machinery  in  working-order,  the 
engineer's  duties  are  mostly  of  a  supervisory  nature. 
When  piston-rings  get  blowing,  when  guides  need 
closing,  or  when  injectors  get  working  badly,  he  re- 
ports the  matter;  and  the  work  is  done  so  that  the 
defect  is  remedied.  With  the  rods  it  is  different. 
Although  he  does  not  file  the  brasses  himself,  he  ex- 
erts great  influence,  for  good  or  evil,  in  the  way  he 
manipulates  the  keys,  and  by  the  care  he  takes  of  the 
rods.  Injudicious  keying  of  rods  is  responsible  for 
more  accidents  than  the  mistakes  in  any  other  one  di- 
rection, with,  perhaps,  the  exception  of  the  current 
mistake  of  the  hind  brakeman,  who  supposes  there  is 
no  use  in  going  back  to  flag  when  his  train  has  stopped 
between  stations. 

167 


1 68  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 


FUNCTIONS   OF   CONNECTING-RODS. 

The  functions  of  rods  being  to  transmit  the  motion 
of  the  pistons  'to  the  running-gear,  they  have  very 
heavy  duty  to  perform.  The  conflicting  strains  and 
shocks  to  which  a  locomotive  is  subjected  while  run- 
ning over  a  rough  track  at  high  speed,  are,  in  many 
instances,  sustained  by  the  rods:  hence  it  is  of  special 
importance  that  this  portion  of  the  motion  should  be 
kept  in  good  order.  Main  rods  convey  the  power  de- 
veloped in  the  cylinders  to  the  crank-pins  by  a  succes- 
sion of  pulls  and  thrusts  equal  in  vigor  to  the  aggregate 
of  steam-pressure  exerted  on  the  piston.  To  endure 
this  alternating  tension  and  compression  without  in- 
jury to  the  working-parts,  it  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance that  the  connections  should  be  close  fitted,  yet 
free  enough  to  prevent  unnecessary  friction.  In  fitting 
up  main-rod  brasses,  it  does  not  matter  in  what  posi- 
tion the  crank  stands,  so  long  as  it  is  convenient  for 
doing  the  work.  But,  if  the  engine  has  been  in  ser- 
vice since  the  pins  were  turned,  they  should  be  cali- 
pered  through  their  horizontal  diameter  when  the 
crank  is  on  the  center;  since  it  is  well  known  that  the 
pins  have  a  tendency  to  wear  flat  on  the  sides  at  right 
angles  to  the  crank's  length.  The  back  ends  of  the 
main-rod  brasses  should  be  fitted  brass  to  brass ;  for 
that  form  of  doing  the  work  makes  the  most  secure 
job,  and  gives  the  connection  all  the  advantages  of  a 
solid  box,  preventing  the  straps  and  brasses  from  being 
knocked  out  of  shape  by  hammering  each  other, — a 
result  that  surely  follows  the  open  brasses  method  of 


CONNECTING-RODS,  SIDE-RODS,  ETC.  169 

fitting  back  ends  of  main-rods.  Leaving  the  forward 
end  brasses  a  little  open  is  not  injurious  to  that  con- 
nection, because  the  line  of  strain  is  not  so  varied  as 
that  of  the  back  end. 

EFFECTS    OF   BAD    FITTING. 

When  the  work  of  fitting  a  set  of  back-end  brasses 
is  completed,  they  should  be  put  in  the  strap,  and 
tried  on  the  pin.  If,  after  being  keyed  close  together, 
they  revolve  on  the  pin  without  pinching,  the  fit  is  not 
too  tight.  It  is  of  the  greatest  consequence,  in  fitting 
rod-brasses,  to  ascertain,  beyond  doubt,  that  the 
brasses  have  been  bored  out  true,  and  that  they  fit  in 
the  strap  so  that  the  line  of  strain  shall  be  in  line  with 
the  cross-head  and  crank-pins.  It  occasionally  happens, 
through  bad  workmanship,  that  when  the  back  end  of 
a  rod  is  keyed  up,  and  the  front  end  not  connected, 
the  rod  does  not  point  straight  to  the  cross-head  pin, 
but  in  a  line  some  distance  to  the  right  or  left.  The 
distance  may  be  very  small,  yet  sufficient  to  cause  no 
small  amount  of  trouble.  By  some  pinching  and  jam- 
ming, a  rod  in  this  condition  can  be  connected  up; 
but  it  is  almost  sure  to  run  hot.  And  a  rod  in  this 
condition  will  never  run  satisfactorily  till  it  is  taken 
down  and  fitted  by  a  competent  machinist.  The  back 
end  may  be  all  right,  and  the  forward  end  suffering 
from  oblique  fitting.  This  is  even  more  common  than 
the  first  case,  and  the  effect  is  the  same.  A  rod  in 
this  condition,  besides  displaying  a  tendency  to  run 
hot,  will  keep  jerking  the  cross-head  from  side  to  side 
on  the  guides,  and  will  probably  make  the  cross-head 


I/O  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

chafe  the  guides  at  certain  points.  Rods  never  run 
cool,  and  free  from  jar,  unless  they  are  fitted  to  trans- 
mit the  power  in  a  direct  line  between  the  pins. 

STRIKING   POINTS   AND    CLEARANCE. 

Before  putting  up  main  rods,  the  striking  points  of 
the  pistons  should  be  located  and  marked  on  the 
guides.  Then,  when  the  rods  are  put  up,  the  clearance 
should  be  divided  equally  between  the  two  ends.  The 
identification  of  these  points  is  of  greater  interest  to 
the  engineer  who  is  running  the  engine  than  to  any 
other  person  ;  for  upon  their  correctness  the  success  of 
his  running  may,  to  some  extent,  depend.  An  engine 
may  go  out  with  the  clearance  badly  divided,  and  run 
all  right  for  a  few  days,  and  the  driving  of  a  key  may 
then  cause  the  piston  to  strike  the  head.  A  forcible 
instance  of  this  kind  once  came  under  my  observation. 
A  careless  machinist,  in  working  on  main-rod  brasses, 
had  mixed  the  liners,  and  shortened  the  rod,  till  the 
piston  began  to  touch  the  back  head.  When  the 
engine  was  working  light,  there  was  just  a  slight  jar; 
but,  when  the  load  was  heavy,  the  jar  became  a  distinct 
pound.  The  engineer  could  not  locate  the  knock,  and 
was  disposed  to  think  it  was  in  the  driving-box.  One 
day  that  he  slipped  the  engine  badly,  steam  began  to 
issue  from  the  back  cylinder-head,  which  was  cracked 
by  a  blow  from  the  piston.  The  cause  of  the  pound 
was  then  discovered.  When  by  a  blunder  of  this  kind 
the  piston  is  permitted  to  lap  over  the  counter-bore  it 
will  nearly  always  result  in  the  packing-rings  getting 
torn  so  that  they  break. 


CONNECTING-RODS,  SIDE-RODS,  ETC.  I /I 

WATCHING   RODS    ON   THE    ROAD. 

When  an  engineer  starts  out  with  an  engine  after 
the  rod-brasses  have  been  filed,  he  should  make  them 
a  special  object  of  attention.  If  he  cannot  shake  the 
connection  laterally  with  his  hands  when  there  is  room 
for  movement  within  the  collars,  he  should  slack  up 
the  key  till  he  can  do  so ;  for  some  one  has  made  a 
mistake  in  fitting.  So  long  as  the  rod  passes  the 
center  without  jar  when  the  engine  is  working  hard  in 
full  gear,  the  brasses  are  tight  enough.  After  running 
a  few  miles  with  newly  fitted  brasses,  the  rod  will 
generally  need  keying  up ;  for  liners  that  were  com- 
paratively loose  when  put  up,  get  driven  compactly 
together,  leaving  lost  motion.  Although  a  connection 
may  be  put  together  brass  to  brass,  there  is  still  some 
work  left  for  the  engineer  to  do  in  the  way  of  keying. 
To  do  keying  correctly  needs  considerable  sagacity, 
especially  in  the  case  of  side-rods.  In  the  case  of 
back  ends  of  main  rods,  the  key  should  be  got  down 
as  soon  as  possible,  to  hold  the  brasses  immovably  in 
the  strap  ;  but,  after  this  point  is  reached,  there  should 
be  no  more  hammering  on  the  key.  Some  men 
persist  in  pounding  down  keys  that  are  already  snug, 
and  the  effect  of  their  blows  is  to  spring  the  brass  out 
of  shape.  A  key  acts  as  a  wedge,  which  it  is;  and, 
when  the  taper  is  slight,  the  blow  imparted  by  a  ham- 
mer roughly  used,  exerts  an  immense  force  in  driving 
it  down.  Something  must  yield;  and  the  brass  gets 
, sprung  towards  the  pin,  presenting  a  ridge  for  a  rub- 
bing surface,  which  heats,  and  causes  delay.  After 


1 72  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

the  key  is  once  driven  tight  home,  its  work  is  finished. 
If  the  pin  then  indicates  lost  motion,  the  rod  should 
be  taken  down,  and  the  brasses  reduced.  In  the  case 
of  main  rods,  this  should  be  done  at  the  first  signs  of 
pound ;  for  lost  motion  entails  heavy  shock  upon  the 
moving  parts.  The  front  end  of  main  rods  requires 
to  be  very  carefully  watched,  and  the  connection  kept 
free  from  jar.  Where  this  part  is  kept  regularly  oiled, 
and  free  from  lost  motion,  it  gives  scarcely  any  trouble  ; 
but  let  the  wrist-pin  of  the  common  cross-head  once 
get  cut  through  neglect,  and  it  is  a  difficult  matter 
getting  it  in  good  running-order  again.  The  style  of 
cross-head  where  the  pin  is  part  of  the  casting,  although 
greatly  used,  is  a  most  awkward  article  to  fit  up  and 
keep  in  shape.  The  form  of  cross-head  which  works 
between  two  guide  bars,  and  has  its  axis  in  line  with 
the  piston-rod,  is  becoming  deservedly  popular. 

SIDE-RODS. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  dispense  with 
side-rods,  and  they  certainly  are  a  troublesome  part  of 
the  machinery  to  keep  right ;  but  no  better  means  of 
connecting  driving-wheels  has  yet  been  devised.  The 
first  method  of  coupling  driving-wheels  together,  so 
that  more  than  one  pair  might  be  available  for  adhe- 
sion, was  by  means  of  cogs  and  gearing.  This  was  im- 
proved on  by  an  endless  chain  working  over  pocketed 
pulleys ;  but  even  this  was  an  extremely  crude  device, 
— working  with  tumultuous  jerks,  and  a  noise  like  a 
stamping-mill.  One  of  the  first  real  improvements, 
~which  George  Stephenson  effected  on  the  locomotive, 


CONNECTING-RODS,  SIDE-RODS,  ETC.  1/3 

was  the  inventing  of  side-rods.  An  essential  element 
in  locomotive  construction  needed  to  make  side-rods 
run  with  safety,  is,  that  all  the  wheels  connected  shall 
be  of  the  same  circumference.  There  is  a  practice  on 
some  roads  of  putting  new  tires  on  wheels  just  as  they 
come  from  the  rolling-mill,  without  putting  them  in 
the  lathe.  Such  tires  are  seldom  accurate  in  size ; 
and  they  cause  no  end  of  trouble,  especially  to  side- 
rods.  This  is  one  of  the  economical  practices  that 
does  not  pay. 

ADJUSTMENT    OF    SIDE-RODS. 

To  connect  driving-wheels  so  that  they  will  run  to- 
gether in  perfect  harmony,  after  ascertaining  that  they 
are  the  same  size,  the  next  point  is  to  secure  the  crank- 
pins  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  centers  of  the 
wheels.  When  this  is  done,  and  the  wheels  are 
trammed  parallel  to  the  line  of  motion,  the  rods  will 
move  on  a  plane  with  the  centers  of  the  crank-pins 
exactly  the  same  distance  apart  as  are  the  centers  of 
the  driving-axles.  The  rods  can  be  adjusted  to  the 
greatest  advantage  with  the  steam  raised,  so  that  the 
heat  of  the  boiler  will  make  the  frames  about  the  same 
length  as  when  the  engine  is  at  work.  The  expansion 
due  to  the  heat  of  the  boiler  is  short  when  measured 
by  a  foot-rule,  but  it  affects  the  smooth  action  of  the 
side-rods  to  a  remarkable  extent. 

Before  tramming  for  the  side-rods,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  the  driving-box  wedges  set  up  just  tight  enough 
to  let  the  driving-boxes  move  vertically  in  the  jaws 
without  sticking.  The  distance  between  the  centers 


*74  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

of  the  driving-axles  and  the  centers  of  the  crank-pins 
having  now  been  found  equal,  the  rods  are  fitted  up; 
each  connection  being  secured  a  close  fit  to  the  pin, 
with  the  brasses  held  brass  to  brass.  With  the  brasses 
bored  out  exactly  to  the  size  of  the  crank-pins,  and  the 
rods  accurately  fitted,  a  connection  could  be  made 
which  would  bind  the  two  sets  of  drivers  to  move  as 
an  unbroken  unit,  were  it  not  for  the  disturbing  element 
which  appears  in  the  shape  of  rough  track.  With  un- 
even track  and  worn  wheel-tires,  a  tremendous  tension 
is  put  on  the  rods  where  the  connections  are  closely 
fitted.  Provision  is  made  for  this  source  of  danger  by 
leaving  the  brasses  of  the  back  pins  loosely  fitted.  A 
yielding  space  is  left  between  the  brass  and  the  pin, 
not  between  the  brass  and  the  key  or  strap.  The  latter 
connections  must  be  perfectly  snug,  or  the  strap  will 
soon  be  pounded  out  of  shape. 

In  the  case  of  ten-wheel  and  consolidation  engines, 
the  brasses  of  all  wheels  behind  the  leading  pair  should 
be  bored  out  one-sixty-fourth  larger  than  the  pins, 
which  will  generally  be  sufficient.  In  case  a  pin  is 
sprung, — which  is  no  rare  circumstance, — room  enough 
must  be  left  in  the  brass  to  let  the  pin  pass  ever  its 
tightest  point  without  pinching.  The  center  is  the 
proper  position  to  put  up  side-rods  on.  Some  men 
like  to  fit  side-rods  with  the  cranks  on  the  eighths  posi- 
tion ;  holding  that  there  the  greatest  strain  comes  on, 
and,  consequently,  that  there  fitting  up  should  be 
done.  That  is  a  mistaken  idea;  for  rods  may  be  put 
together  on  the  eighths,  and  yet  bind  the  pins  badly 
in  passing  the  centers.  On  the  other  hand,  if  they 


CONNECTING-RODS,  SIDE-RODS,  ETC.  175 

pass  the  centers  easily,  they  will  go  round  the  remain- 
der of  the  circle  without  danger. 


KEYING    SIDE-RODS. 

When  it  is  necessary  for  an  engineer  to  key  up  side- 
rods,  he  should  select  a  place  where  the  track  is 
straight,  and  as  even  as  possible.  Then  he  should  put 
t'he  cranks  on  the  center,  and  take  care  that  he  can 
move  the  connections  laterally  after  the  job  is  done. 
If  he  now  moves  the  engine  so  that  the  cranks  are  on 
the  other  center,  and  finds  that  the  rod  connections  can 
still  be  moved,  that  side  is  all  right.  If  the  other  side 
be  treated  in  a  similar  manner,  his  rods  are  not  likely 
to  give  trouble.  With  a  worn-out  engine  and  rough 
road-bed,  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  preserve  the  true 
mean  between  loose  and  tight  side-rod  connections. 
But,  in  a  case  of  doubt,  the  loose  side  is  the  safe  side. 
Yet  most  engineers  are  inclined  to  err  on  the  side  of 
danger,  for  they  will  generally  tighten  up  the  rods  to 
prevent  them  from  rattling.  On  a  Western  road, 
where  solid-ended  brasses  were  adopted,  it  was  often 
amusing  to  hear  the  engineers  protesting  against  the 
noise  the  side-rods  made  when  the  brasses  began  to  get 
worn.  They  would  rattle  from  one  end  of  the  division 
to  the  other;  but  they  would  not  break  pins,  or  frac- 
ture themselves,  and  tear  the  cab  to  pieces,  or  ditch  a 
train,  as  happens  so  often  from  other  rods  being  keyed 
to  prevent  noise.  Sprung  crank-pins  and  broken  side- 
rods  are  very  often  the  result  of  injudicious  keying. 


1 76  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

DIFFICULTY    IN    LOCATING   DEFECTS. 

A  locomotive  has  so  many  parts  that  bear  a  close 
relation  to  each  other,  and  that  are  so  sympathetic 
when  one  of  the  parts  becomes  disordered,  that  it  is 
sometimes  a  difficult  matter  to  immediately  locate  a 
complaint.  One  of  the  signs  of  a  defect,  in  many  of  the 
parts,  or  one  of  the  consequences  of  it,  is  a  "  pound," 
— a  complaint  that  we  hear  of  in  a  locomotive  about 
as  frequently,  and  with  the  same  feeling,  as  we  do  of 
malaria  in  the  individual. 

POUNDING   IN    DRIVING-BOXES   AND    WEDGES. 

But  we  will  deal  now  with  the  pounds  in  a  locomo- 
tive, and  will  take  the  location  in  which  we  find  the 
most  and  serious  ones, — namely,  in  the  driving-boxes 
and  wedges, — and  see  why  they  pound,  and  what  will 
prevent  them  from  doing  so.  The  cause  we  will  find, 
if  in  the  wedges,  is  due  to  a  rocking  of  the  box  in 
them,  or  from  causes  arising  from  imperfect  fitting 
when  they  were  put  up,  or  lined  up  when  the  engine 
was  in  the  shop.  This  fitting  of  wedges  on  a  locomo- 
tive that  has  done  service  is  a  matter  of  importance  in 
the  immediate  present  and  future  working  of  the  parts 
themselves,  and  of  other  parts  of  the  locomotive  as 
well.  On  stripping  a  locomotive  that  has  done  much 
service,  it  will  be  found  that  the  working  of  the  wedges 
on  the  face  of  the  pedestal  has  worn  it  hollow,  or 
pounded  furrows  on  it,  or  has  done  both.  This  occurs 
so  frequently  on  the  "live  "  wedge  side,  that  it  may 
be  taken  as  the  rule,  rather  than  the  exception,  to  find 


CONNECTING-RODS,  SIDE-RODS.  ETC. 

the  pedestal  in  this  condition.  While  it  does  not 
happen  so  frequently  on  the  "  dead  "  wedge  side  as  on 
the  other,  it  will  be  found  there  also  if  the  wedge  has 
not  been  held  by  a  fastening  to  the  pedestal,  or  securely 
fitted  between  the  top  of  the  frame  and  the  pedestal 
binder  brace.  This  defects  will  be  found  on  the  back 
of  the  wedge  also,  and  are  produced  by  the  same  cause 
and  same  motion  as  those  on  the  pedestal  face.  These 
defects  are  the  most  frequent  cause  of  the  driving-box 
pounding,  or  of  the  wedges  rocking;  since  thereby  the 
wedges  get  thrown  out  of  parallel  to  each  other,  when 
it  becomes  necessary  to  adjust  them  during  the  service 
of  the  locomotive. 

In  refitting  wedges,  these  defects  should  be  re- 
moved, the  pedestal  face  carefully  straightened  its 
entire  length,  and  the  wedge-back  fitted  to  it.  It  is 
not  only  necessary  that  the  pedestal  face  should  be 
smooth,  but  that  it  should  be  straight  its  entire 
length.  If  not,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  adjust 
the  wedge,  if  the  pedestal  is  high  on  the  top  end,  the 
wedge  is  thrown  out  at  the  top,  binding  the  box  at 
that  point,  and  allowing  it  to  swing  at  the  bottom. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  HAVING  WEDGES  PROPERLY   FITTED. 

With  the  pedestal  face  in  a  proper  condition  to 
avoid  displacement  of  the  wedge,  when  moved  to  dif- 
ferent positions  on  it,  we  should  consider  what  will  be 
the  method  of  lining  the  wedges,  and  what  duty  they 
have  to  perform.  This  duty  is  merely  to  take  up  the 
lost  motion  between  the  pedestal  and  boxes;  and 
that,  from  their  shape,  they  readily  do  from  time  to 


178  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

time.  While  this  duty  is  simple,  the  wedges  ought 
to  do  it  without  affecting  any  of  the  other  parts  of  the 
locomotive, — a  condition  of  perfection  that  can  be 
reached  only  by  having  all  the  wedges  perfectly  par- 
allel with  the  pedestals  and  with  each  other.  If  the 
first  condition  is  not  complied  with,  the  result,  as 
stated,  will  be  the  box  swinging  in  the  wedges.  If 
the  latter,  then  with  the  varying  position  of  the  boxes 
in  the  pedestal  due  to  the  engine  settling  on  the 
springs,  or  to  the  change  of  position  from  the  motion 
of  the  springs  when  the  locomotive  is  running,  we  will 
have  a  varying  distance  between  the  centers  of  the 
wheels  and  length  for  the  side-rods. 

Many  of  the  complaints  we  hear  of  rods  networking 
properly  are  owing  to  this  defect  in  wedges  not  being 
parallel,  by  which  the  distances  are  varied,  and  a  strain 
thrown  upon  the  rods  that  not  only  affects  them,  but 
causes  them  in  turn  to  bind  the  boxes  against  the 
wedges  by  trying  to  compress  or  extend  to  a  length 
varying  as  often  as  the  motion  of  the  springs.  While 
the  motion  of  the  springs  is  not  much  in  proportion  to 
the  length  of  the  wedges,  and  the  varying  distance  be- 
tween centers  of  wheels  is  in  ratio  to  that  proportion, 
if  the  wedges  are  not  parallel,  we  must  remember 
how  often  the  motion  is  occurring,  and  that,  no  mat- 
ter how  slight  the  strain  upon  the  rods  may  be,  we 
are  putting  it  on  a  part  of  the  locomotive  that  requires 
the  minutest  adjustment  to  enable  it  to  do  its  work 
properly  and  safely. 


CONNECTING-RODS,  SIDE-RODS,  ETC.  179 

INFLUENCE    OF   HALF-ROUND    BRASSES. 

Driving-boxes  fitted  with  a  half-round  brass  have  a 
tendency  to  close  at  the  bottom.  This  tendency  is 
continuous,  and  becomes  most  marked  as  the  brass 
wears  down,  relieving  the  box  of  the  strain  put  upon 
it  by  the  tight-fitting  brass.  With  a  properly  fitted 
brass,  and  a  collar  put  up  in  good  shape,  the  box  can 
not  close  much :  still,  there  will  be  enough  looseness 
to  cause  a  slight  pounding.  During  the  first  few  days' 
service  of  a  locomotive  after  new  driving-brasses  of 
this  shape  are  put  in,  the  compression  on  the  brass, 
resulting  from  the  weight  of  the  engine,  tends  to  close 
the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  permits  the  box  to  rock. 
This  evil  may  be,  to  some  extent,  prevented  by  fitting 
the  wedges  slightly  closer  at  the  bottom.  This  clos- 
ing of  the  box  at  the  bottom  is  not  only  an  evil  and 
annoyance  in  itself  by  causing  pounding,  but  is  a 
further  source  of  trouble  by  hastening  the  forming  of 
a  shoulder  on  the  top  of  the  wedge.  The  tendency  at 
all  times  is  for  the  axle-box  to  wear  a  shoulder  at  the 
top  and  bottom  of  its  travel,  even  when  the  box  re- 
tains its  proper  shape ;  but,  when  it  is  distorted  by 
closing  at  the  bottom,  the  rubbing  surfaces  are  put  out 
of  the  true  plane,  and  wear  takes  place  mu,ch  more 
rapidly.  While  the  springs  retain  their  position,  and 
impart  to  the  axle-box  a  fixed  range  of  motion,  no 
serious  effect  is  felt  from  the  worn  wedges.  But  when 
the  locomotive  is  passing  over  rough  frogs  or  bad  rail- 
joints,  where  the  motion  of  the  spring  is  increased,  the 
frame  pounds  down  upon  the  box,  which  for  a  moment 


ISO  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

becomes  fastened  in  the  narrow  space  between  the 
shoulders  of  the  wedges ;  and  an  effort  is  needed  for 
the  box  to  relieve  itself,  and  allow  the  spring  to  re- 
sume its  motion.  This  causes  the  engine  to  ride  hard 
in  some  instances,  where  the  condition  of  the  track 
makes  the  box  catch  frequently.  Sometimes  the  box 
will  be  unable  to  relieve  itself  without  assistance,  and 
much  loss  of  time  and  annoyance  result  when  the 
wedge  has  to  be  pulled  down  to  relieve  the  box. 

The  forming  of  the  shoulder  on  top  and  bottom  of 
the  wedge  may  be  anticipated  and  prevented  by  plan- 
ing the  part  where  the  ridges  form,  leaving  a  face  just 
the  length  of  the  box  plus  the  space  covered  by  the 
motion  of  the  springs.  Not  only  does  this  aid  in  pre- 
venting the  box  from  forming  a  shoulder,  but  it  also 
reduces  the  first  cost  of  fitting  the  wedges  by  reducing 
the  surface  to  be  squared  and  finished  true. 

POSITION   OF   BOXES   WHILE    SETTING   UP  WEDGES. 

With  the  wedges  in  a  proper  condition  when  the 
locomotive  enters  service,  we  yet  must  care  for  them 
and  adjust  them  from  time  to  time,  when  it  is  neces- 
sary to  take  up  the  lost  motion  between  the  pedestals 
and  boxes.  When  doing  this  work,  it  is  important 
that  the,  position,  and  condition  of  the  driving-box 
should  be  considered.  The  position  of  the  box  should 
be  such  that  the  wedge  may  be  set  up  to  the  proper 
degree  of  tightness  with  certainty  and  without  much 
labor.  It  is  important  that  awheel  position  be  found 
where  the  box  would  not  be  moved  by  the  wedge 
when  the  latter  is  being  adjusted.  This  position  will 


CONNECTING-RODS,   SIDE-RODS,  ETC.  l8l 

be  found  where  the  box  is  up  against  the  dead  wedge, 
since  the  lost  motion  will  then  be  between  the  box 
and  the  wedge  to  be  moved.  To  get  all  the  driving- 
boxes  in  that  position  at  one  time  is  a  difficult  matter, 
if  it  is  to  be  done  by  pinching  the  wheels.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  rods  decides  the  direction  of  their  action 
on  the  wheel  by  the  thrust  or  pull  upon  the  crank-pin. 
If  the  rod  is  above  the  wheel  center,  pinching  behind 
the  back  wheel  will  force  both  the  wheels  and  boxes 
on  that  side  up  against  the  dead  wedge;  but,  should 
the  rod  be  below  the  wheel  center,  similar  work  with 
the  pinch-bar  will  draw  the  forward  box  away  from 
the  dead  wedge,  the  side  rod  doing  this  by  pulling  on 
the  crank-pin, — this  is  always  supposing  the  dead 
wedge  to  be  in  the  front  pedestals.  The  best  posi- 
tion, therefore,  to  get  an  engine  into  for  setting  up  all 
the  wedges,  is  with  the  side-rods  on  the  upper  eighths ; 
for  then  pinching  behind  the  back  wheels  will  push  all 
the  boxes  up  to  the  dead  wedges.  The  work  can 
then  be  done  v/ithout  putting  unnecessary  strain  upon 
the  wedge-bolts,  which  are  often  found  with  the  cor- 
ners of  the  heads  rounded  off,  and  the  thread  injured 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  will  not  screw  through  the 
binder-brace, — a  condition  of  matters  nearly  always 
caused  by  trying  to  force  up  wedges  without  putting 
the  engine  in  the  proper  position.  If  the  wedge-bolt, 
from  faulty  construction,  or  through  injury,  is  unable 
to  move  up  the  wedge,  driving  is  resorted  to,  by  which 
means  it  is  battered  on  the  end  ;  and  the  jarring  of 
each  blow  causes  the  ashes  and  dirt  on  top  to  fall  be- 
hind the  wedge,  throwing  it  out  of  parallel,  and  intro- 


1 82  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

ducing  material  that  will  cause  the  wedge  to  cut.  The 
ashes  and  dirt  that  accumulate  so  readily  on  the  top  of 
wedges  and  boxes  cause  no  end  of  trouble,  although 
the  fact  is  not  generally  recognized ;  and  it  will  gener- 
ally be  fruitful  labor  to  have  these  parts  well  cleaned 
off  before  beginning  to  set  up  wedges.  Many  com- 
plaints that  are  made  of  wedges  not  being  properly 
adjusted,  proceed  from  the  disturbance  that  follows 
grit  introduced  between  the  wedge  and  box. 

NECESSITY    FOR    KEEPING   BOXES   AND    WEDGES 
CLEAN. 

The  growing  practice  of  close  and  stated  inspection 
of  locomotives  to  detect  defects,  before  waiting  for 
them  to  develop  into  breakages  that  cause  trouble  and 
delay  to  trains,  will  give  especially  good  results  if  ap- 
plied to  boxes  and  wedges.  If  the  wedges  are  taken 
down  and  examined  at  regular  intervals,  the  ridges 
that  appear  so  readily  on  the  face,  when  oil-grooves 
are  cut  on  the  sides  of  the  driving-box,  can  be 
smoothed  off  before  they  cause  distortion  of  the  sur- 
face. This  is  also  a  good  time  for  a  thorough  clean- 
ing of  the  pedestals  and  box,  and  the  oil-holes  can  be 
examined  and  opened  out  properly.  Work  of  this 
kind  often  prevents  boxes  getting  hot  on  the  road, 
with  all  the  entailed  delay  and  expense,  which  fre- 
quently include  changing  engines  if  the  train  must  be 
pushed  on.  One  turn  of  a  hot  box  will  often  wear  a 
brass  more  than  the  daily  running  for  two  years. 


CONNECTING-RODS,   SIDE-RODS,  ETC.  183 

TEMPERATURE    OF    THE    BOX    TO    BE    CONSIDERED. 

One  condition  of  the  box  to  be  considered,  when 
adjusting  wedges,  is  its  temperature  at  the  time  the 
work  is  done,  and  what  that  will  be  when  the  engine 
is  in  service.  Adjusting  wedges  is  often  done  as  a 
preliminary  step  in  lining  and  adjusting  side-rods ;  and 
this  is  done  on  many  roads  on  the  shop-day  when  the 
locomotive  is  in  for  washing-out  and  periodical  re- 
pairs. At  that  time,  the  engine  being  cold,  the  boxes 
will  be  at  their  lowest  temperature,  and,  consequently, 
at  their  smallest  dimensions.  Allowance  should  then 
be  made  with  the  wedges  for  some  expansion  of  the 
boxes.  Another  condition  that  should  be  considered, 
is  how  the  box  has  been  running.  A  box  that  has 
been  running  hot  or  warm,  generally  compels  tne 
wedge  to  be  lowered  to  allow  for  extra  expansion. 
When  this  box  has  been  repacked,  or  otherwise  cared 
for,  the  wedge  is  again  set  up.  While  doing  this,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  a  box  that  has  been  run- 
ning hot  is  liable  to  be  distorted,  and  its  journal 
bearing  injured,  so  that  it  is  likely  to  run  warm  for 
some  time,  till  the  brass  comes  to  a  smooth  bearing. 
If  the  wedge  will  not  permit  the  box  to  expand,  it 
binds  the  journal,  and  is  likely  to  run  still  hotter,  and 
is  liable  to  stick  in  the  jaws. 

SMALL    DISORDERS    THAT    CAUSE    ROUGH    RIDING. 

Many  complaints  are  made  about  pounds  in  driving- 
boxes  and  wedges,  when  the  trouble  really  exists  else- 
where. Boxes  with  driving-spring  saddles  whost  foot 


184  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

is  but  the  width  of  the  top  or  spring-band,  will  oft- 
times,  if  the  band  is  not  rounded  where  it  rides  on  the 
saddle,  or  is  not  fitted  with  a  pin  or  other  center  bear- 
ing, tip  on  the  box  with  each  motion  of  the  spring. 
Or,  if  the  saddle  is  moved  from  its  worn  seat  on  the 
top  of  the  box,  it  will  rock  and  pound.  Again,  ob- 
structions in  the  bearing  of  the  spring  equalizer  that 
will  prevent  the  full  motion  of  the  springs,  and  bring 
them  to  a  sudden  stop,  will  produce  a  motion  rtsem 
bling  that  caused  by  a  stuck  box.  Attention  to  de- 
tails that  are  sometimes  considered  the  crude  parts  o_ 
a  locomotive,  will  often  prove,  highly  beneficial  to  the 
working  of  the  locomotive ;  and  especially  is  this  the 
case  with  the  parts  that  transmit  the  motion  of  the 
springs. 


CHAPTER    XV. 
THE   VALVE  -  MOTION. 

THE    LOCOMOTIVE    SLIDE-VALVE. 

THE  nature  of  the  service  required  of  locomotive 
engines,  especially  those  employed  on  fast-train  ser- 
vice, makes  it  necessary  that  the  steam-distribution 
gear  shall  be  free  from  complication ;  and,  for  con- 
venience in  working  the  engine,  it  is  essential  that 
means  should  be  provided  for  reversing  the  motion 
promptly  without  endangering  the  working  -  parts. 
The  valve-gear  should  also  be  capable  of  regulating 
the  admission  and  exhaust  of  steam,  so  that  the  en- 
gine shall  be  able  to  maintain  a  high  rate  of  speed,  or 
to  exert  a  great  tractive  force.  These  features  are 
admirably  combined  in  the  valve-gear  of  the  ordinary 
locomotive.  Designers  of  this  form  of  engine  have 
given  great  consideration  to  the  merit  of  simplicity. 
Numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  displace  the 
common  D  slide-valve,  but  every  move  in  that  direc- 
tion has  ended  in  failure. 

INVENTION  AND   APPLICATION   OF  THE    SLIDE-VALVE. 

The  slide-valve,  in  a  crude  form,  was  invented  by 
Matthew  Murray  of  Leeds,  England,  towards  the  end 

185 


1 86  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

of  last  century;  and  it  was  subsequently  improved 
by  Watt  to  the  D  form.  It  received  but  little  appli- 
cation in  England  till  the  locomotive  era.  Oliver 
Evans  of  Philadelphia  appears  to  have  perceived  the 
advantages  possessed  by  the  slide-valve,  for  he  used 
it  on  engines  he  designed  years  before  locomotives 
came  into  service.  The  D  slide-valve  was  better 
adapted  for  high-speed  engines  than  anything  tried^ 
during  our  early  engineering  days,  but  it  was  on 
locomotives  where  it  first  properly  demonstrated  its 
real  value.  The  period  of  necessity  brought  the 
slide-valve  into  prominence ;  and  the  galaxy  of  me- 
chanical genius  that  heralded  the  locomotive  into 
successful  operation  recognized  its  most  valuable  feat- 
ures, and  it  soon  obtained  exclusive  possession  of  that 
form  of  engine.  Through  good  and  evil  report,  and 
against  many  attempts  to  displace  it,  the  slide-valve 
has  retained  a  monopoly  of  high-speed  reversible 
engines. 

DESCRIPTION    OF   THE    SLIDE-VALVE. 

The  slide-valve  in  common  use  is  practically  an 
oblong  cast-iron  box,  which  rests  and  moves  on  the 
valve-seat.  In  the  valve-seat,  separated  by  partitions 
called  bridges,  are  three  ports,  those  at  the  ends 
being  the  openings  of  the  passages  for  conveying 
steam  to  and  from  the  cylinders,  while  the  middle 
port  is  in  communication  with  the  blast-pipe,  which 
conveys  the  exhausted  steam  to  the  atmosphere.  On 
the  under  side  of  the  valve  is  a  semicircular  cavity, 
which  spans  the  exhaust-port  and  the  bridges  when 


TttE    VALVE-MOTION. 


l87 


the  valve  stands  in  its  central  position.  When  the 
steam  within  the  cylinder  has  performed  its  duty  of 
pushing  the  piston  towards  the  end  of  the  stroke,  the 
valve  cavity  moves  over  the  steam-port,  and  allows 
the  steam  to  pass  into  the  exhaust-port,  thence  into 
the  exhaust-pipe.  The  cavity  under  the  valve  thus 
acts  as  a  door  for  the  escape  of  the  exhaust  steam. 
This  is  a  very  convenient  and  simple  method  of 
educting  the  steam  ;  and  the  process  helps  to  balance 
the  valve,  since  the  rush  of  escaping  steam  striking 
the  under  part  of  the  valve  tends  to  counteract  the 
pressure  that  the  steam  in  the  steam  chest  continually 
exerts  on  the  top  of  the  valve. 

PRIMITIVE    SLIDE-VALVE. 

In  its  primitive  form  the  slide-valve  was  made 
merely  long  enough  to  cover  the  steam-ports  when 
placed  in  the  central  position,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6. 


Quarter   Size. 

FiG.  6. 


With  a  valve  of  this  form,  the  slightest  movement 
had  the  effect  of  opening  one  end  so  that  steam 
would  be  admitted  to  the  cylinder,  while  the  other 


1 88  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

end  opened  the  exhaust.  By  such  an  arrangement 
steam  was  necessarily  admitted  to  the  cylinder  during 
the  whole  length  of  the  stroke;  since  closing  at  one 
end  meant  opening  at  the  other.  There  were  several 
serious  objections  to  this  system.  It  was  very  diffi- 
cult to  give  the  engine  cushion  enough  to  help  the 
cranks  over  the  centers  without  pounding,  and  a  small 
degree  of  lost  motion  was  sufficient  to  make  the 
steam  obstruct  the  piston  during  a  portion  of  the 
stroke.  But  the  most  serious  drawback  to  the  short 
valve  was  that  it  permitted  no  advantage  to  be  taken 
of  the  expansive  power  of  steam.  For  several  years 
after  the  advent  of  the  locomotive  the  boiler-pressure 
used  seldom  exceeded  fifty  pounds  to  the  sqliare 
inch.  With  this  tension  of  steam  there  was  little 
work  to  be  got  from  expansion  with  the  conditions 
under  which  locomotives  were  worked;  but,  so  soon 
as  higher  pressures  began  to  be  introduced,  the  loss 
of  heat  entailed  by  permitting  the  full- pressure  steam 
to  follow  the  piston  to  the  end  of  the  stroke  became 
too  great  to  continue  without  an  attempted  remedy. 
A  very  simple  change  served  to  remedy  this  defect 
and  to  render  the  slide-valve  worthy  of  a  prominent 
place  among  mechanical  appliances  for  saving  power. 

OUTSIDE    LAP. 

The  change  referred  to,  which  so  greatly  enhanced 
the  efficiency  of  the  slide-valve,  consisted  in  lengthen- 
ing the  valve-face,  so  that,  when  the  valve  stood  in 
the  center  of  the  seat,  the  edges  of  the  valve  ex- 
tended a  certain  distance  over  the  induction  ports,  as 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  1 09 

in  Fig.  7.  This  extension  of  the  valve  is  called  out- 
side lap,  or  simply  lap.  The  effect  of  lap  is  to  close 
the  steam-port  before  the  piston  reaches  the  end  of 
the  stroke,  and  the  point  at  which  the  steam-port  is 
closed  is  known  as  the  point  of  cut-off.  When  the 
steam  is  cut  off  and  confined  within  the  cylinder,  it 
pushes  the  piston  along  by  its  expansive  energy, 
doing  work  with  heat  that  would  be  lost  were  the  cyl- 
inder left  in  communication  with  the  steam-chest  till 
the  end  of  the  stroke. 


Quarter   Size 

FIG.  7. 

When  a  slide-valve  is  actuated  by  an  eccentric  con- 
nected directly  with  the  rocker-arm  or  valve-stem,  the 
point  of  cut-off  caused  by  the  extent  of  lap,  remains 
the  same  till  a  change  is  made  on  the  valve,  or  on  the 
throw  of  the  eccentric,  unless  an  independent  cut-off 
valve  be  employed.  Locomotives  having  the  old  hook 
motion  worked  under  this  disadvantage;  because  the 
hook  could  not  vary  the  travel  of  the  valve,  which  is 
the  method  usually  resorted  to  for  producing  a  vari- 
able cut-off.  The  link  and  other  simple  expansion 
gears  perform  their  office  of  varying  the  cut-off  in  this 
way. 


I9O  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

SOME   EFFECTS    OF    LAP. 

In  addition  to  cutting  off  admission  of  steam  before 
the  end  of  the  stroke,  lap  requires  the  valve  to  be  set 
in  such  a  way  that  it  has  also  the  effect  of  leading  to 
the  exhaust-port  being  opened  before  the  end  of  the 
stroke.  The  point  where  the  exhaust  is  opened  is 
usually  known  as  the  point  of  release.  The  change 
which  causes  release  to  happen  before  the  piston  com- 
pletes its  stroke,  leads  to  the  closure  of  the  exhaust- 
port  before  the  end  of  the  return-stroke  is  reached, 
which  imprisons  the  steam  remaining  in  the  cylinder, 
causing  compression.  Where  a  valve  has  no  inside 
lap,  release  and  compression  happen  simultaneously; 
that  is,  the  port  at  one  end  of  the  cylinder  is  opened 
to  release  the  steam,  and  that  at  the  other  end  is 
closed,  letting  the  piston  compress  any  steam  remain- 
ing in  the  cylinder  into  the  space  left  as  piston  clear- 
ance. 

INSIDE    LAP. 

In  some  cases  the  inside  edges  of  the  valve  cavity 
do  not  reach  the  edges  of  the  steam-ports  when  the 
valve  is  on  the  middle  of  the  seat,  but  lap  over  on  the 
bridge  a  certain  distance,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines 
in  Fig.  7.  This  is  called  inside  lap,  and  its  effect 
upon  the  distribution  of  steam  is  to  delay  the  release. 
By  this  means  it  prolongs  the  period  of  expansion, 
and  hastens  compression  on  the  return  stroke.  Inside 
lap  is  an  advantage  only  with  slow-working  engines. 
When  high  speed  is  attempted  with  engines  having 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  1QI 

much  inside  lap,  the  steam  does  not  have  enough  time 
to  escape  from  the  cylinders,  and  the  back  pressure 
and  compression  become  so  great  as  to  be  very  detri- 
mental to  the  working  of  the  engine.  As  locomotive 
engineers  have  it,  the  engine  is  "  logy." 

THE  EXTENT  OF  LAP  USUALLY  ADOPTED. 

In  locomotive  practice,  the  extent  of  lap  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  character  of  service  the  engine  is  in- 
tended to  perform.  With  American  standard  gauge 
engines,  the  lap  varies  from  £  inch  to  ij  inch.  For 
high-speed  engines,  the  extent  of  lap  ranges  from  £ 
to  ij.  Freight  engines  commonly  get  f  to  f  outside 
lap,  and  from  ^  to  J  inside  lap.  With  a  given  travel, 
the  greater  the  lap  the  longer  will  the  period  for  ex- 
pansion be. 

FIRST  APPLICATION   OF   LAP. 

Lap  was  applied  to  the  slide-valve  in  this  country 
before  its  advantage  as  an  element  of  economy  was 
understood  in  Europe.  As  early  as  1829,  James  of 
New  York  used  lap  on  the  valves  of  an  engine  used 
to  run  a  steam-carriage;  and  in  1832  Mr.  Charles  W. 
Copeland  put  a  lap- valve  on  a  steamboat  engine,  and 
his  father  understood  that  its  advantage  was  in  pro- 
viding for  expansion  of  the  steam.  Within  a  decade 
after  our  first  steam-operated  railroad  was  opened, 
the  lap-valve  became  a  recognized  feature  of  the 
American  locomotive ;  but  the  cause  of  the  saving  of 
fuel,  effected  by  its  use,  was  not  well  comprehended. 
Many  enlightened  engineers  attributed  the  saving  to 


IQ2  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

the  early  opening  of  the  exhaust,  brought  about  where 
outside  lap  was  used,  which  they  theorized  reduced 
back  pressure  on  the  piston ;  and  in  that  way  they 
accounted  for  the  enhanced  economy  resulting  from 
the  application  of  lap.  It  was  not  till  Colburn  ap- 
plied the  indicator  to  the  locomotive,  that  the  true 
cause  of  economy  was  demonstrated  to  be  in  the  addi- 
tional work  taken  from  the  steam  by  using  it  expan- 
sively. 

THE   ALLEN   VALVE. 

An  improvement  on  the  plain  D  slide-valve  has 
been  effected  in  a  simple  and  ingenious  manner  in  the 
Allen  valve,  which  is  receiving  considerable  favor  for 
high-speed  locomotives.  This  valve  is  shown  in  Fig. 
8.  The  valve  has  a  supplementary  steam-passage,  A, 


FIG.  8. 


At  cast  above  the  exhaust  cavity.    The  valve  and  seat 
are  so  arranged,  that,  so  soon  as  the  outside  edge  of 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  193 

the  valve  begins  to  uncover  the  steam-port  at  B,  the 
supplementary  passage  begins  receiving  steam  at  C', 
and  this  gives  a  double  opening  for  the  admission  of 
steam  to  the  port  when  the  travel  is  short.  As  the 
travel  of  the  valve  is  always  short  when  an  engine  is 
running  at  high  speed,  the  advantage  of  this  double 
opening  is  very  great;  for  it  has  the  effect  of  admit- 
ting the  steam  promptly  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke, 
and  maintaining  a  full  pressure  on  the  piston  till  the 
point  of  cut-off. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  ALLEN  VALVE. 

With  an  ordinary  valve  cutting  off  at  six  inches, 
and  having  five  inches  eccentric  throw,  the  port 
opening  seldom  exceeds  f  inch.  It  is  a  hard  matter 
getting  the  full  pressure  of  steam  through  such  a  small 
opening  in  the  instant  given  for  admission.  If  an 
Allen  valve  is  used  with  that  motion,  the  opening  will 
be  double,  making  f  inch,  which  makes  an  important 
difference.  The  practical  effect  of  a  change  of  this 
kind  is  that  an  engine  will  take  a  train  along,  cutting 
off  at  six  inches  with  the  Allen  valve,  when,  with  the 
ordinary  valve,  the  links  would  have  to  be  dropped  to 
eight  or  nine  inches.  The  valve  can  be  designed  to 
work  on  any  valve-seat,  but  the  dimensions  given  in 
Fig.  8  are  those  that  have  been  found  most  satisfac- 
tory with  our  large  passenger  engines.  In  designing 
an  Allen  valve  for  an  old  seat,  it  is  sometimes  advis- 
able to  widen  the  steam-ports  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
or  more,  by  chamfering  off  the  outside  edges  that 
amount.  Care  must  be  -taken  to  prevent  the  valve 


194  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

from  traveling  so  far  as  to  put  the  supplementary  port 
over  the  exhaust-port,  for  that  would  allow  live  steam 
to  pass  through.  The  proper  dimensions  can  best  be 
schemed  out  on  paper  before  making  the  required 
change  on  the  seat. 

DISADVANTAGES  OF  THE  ALLEN  VALVE. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  Allen  valve  are  that  it  re- 
quires care  and  attention  in  setting  and  adjustment. 
The  valve  gives  practically  double-lead  opening;  but 
through  the  blunder  of  having  the  opening  at  C  too 
great  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke  many  locomotives 
have  suffered  so  much  from  excessive  lead  that  the 
Allen  valve  has  been  abandoned  as  a  failure.  In 
other  cases  there  was  no  opening  at  C  when  the  piston 
was  beginning  the  stroke.  Failures  of  a  device  be- 
cause those  in  charge  were  deficient  in  common  sense 
is  an  old  story. 

CASE   WHERE  THE  ALLEN  VALVE    PROVED  ITS  VALUE. 

On  one  of  the  leading  railroads  in  this  country,  an 
engineer  was  running  a  locomotive  on  a  fast  train 
where  it  was  a  hard  matter  making  the  card-time.  A 
few  minutes  could  be  saved  by  passing  a  water-station ; 
but  this  was  done  at  serious  risk,  for  the  tender  would 
nearly  always  be  empty  by  the  time  the  next  water- 
station  was  reached.  The  master  mechanic  of  the 
road  determined  to  equip  this  engine  with  the  Allen 
valve:  and,  after  the  change  was  made,  there  was  no 
risk  in  passing  the  water  station  ;  for  there  always  was 
a  good  margin  of  water  in  -the  tank  when  the  next 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  195 

watering-place  was  reached.  The  engine  seemed  to 
steam  better,  because  the  work  was  done  with  less 
steam  ;  and  there  was  a  decided  saving  of  fuel.  The 
change  made  the  engine  smarter,  and  there  seems  to 
be  no  limit  to  the  speed  it  can  make.  This  valve  can 
be  applied  to  any  locomotive  with  trifling  expense. 
When  an  engine  is  designed  specially  for  the  Allen 
valve,  the  steam  ports  and  bridges  are  usually  made  a 
little  wider  than  for  the  ordinary  valve.  The  only 
real  difficulty  in  adopting  the  valve  is  getting  the  cast- 
ing properly  made,  so  that  the  supplementary  port 
will  not  be  too  rough  for  the  passage  of  steam,  and 
the  thin  shell  will  be  strong  enough  to  stand  the 
pressure. 

INSIDE   CLEARANCE. 

For  high-speed  locomotives,  where  there  is  great 
necessity  for  getting  rid  of  the  exhaust  steam  quickly, 
the  valves  are  sometimes  cut  away  at  the  edges  of  the 
cavity,  so  that,  when  the  valve  is  placed  in  the  middle 
of  the  seat,  it  does  not  entirely  cover  the  inside  of 
either  of  the  steam-ports.  This  is  called  inside  clear- 
ance. In  many  instances  inside  clearance  has  been 
adopted  in  an  effort  to  rectify  mistakes  made  in  de- 
signing the  valve-motion,  principally  to  overcome  de- 
fects caused  by  deficiency  of  valve-travel.  The  fastest 
locomotives  throughout  the  country  do  not  require 
inside  clearance,  because  their  valve-motion  is  so  de- 
signed that  it  is  not  necessary.  Inside  clearance  in- 
duces premature  release,  and  diminishes  the  period  of 


196  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

expansion.       Consequently    inside    clearance    wastes 
steam,  and  ought  to  be  avoided. 

LEAD. 

There  are  certain  advantages  gained,  in  the  working 
of  a  locomotive,  by  having  the  valves  set  so  that  the 
steam-port  will  be  open  a  small  distance  for  admission 
of  steam,  when  the  piston  is  at  the  beginning  of  the 
stroke.  This  opening  is  called  lead.  On  the  steam 
side  of  the  valve  the  opening  is  called  steam-lead :  on 
the  exhaust  side  it  is  called  exhaust-lead.  Lead  is 
generally  produced  by  advancing  the  eccentric  on  the 
shaft,  its  effect  being  to  accelerate  every  event  of  the 
valve's  movement;  viz.,  admission,  cut-off,  release, 
and  compression.  In  the  most  perfectly  constructed 
engines,  there  soon  comes  to  be  lost  motion  in  the  rod 
connections  and  in  the  boxes. N  The  effect  of  this  lost 
motion  is  to  delay  the  movement  of  the  valves;  and, 
unless  they  are  set  with  a  lead  opening,  the  stroke  of 
the  piston  would  in  some  instances  be  commenced  be- 
fore steam  got  into  the  cylinder.  It  is  also  f6und,  in 
practice,  that  this  lost  motion  would  cause  a  pounding 
at  each  change  in  the  direction  of  the  piston's  travel, 
unless  there  is  the  necessary  cushion  to  bring  the 
cranks  smoothly  over  the  centers.  Without  cushion, 
the  change  of  direction  of  the  piston's  travel  is  effected 
by  a  series  of  jerks  that  are  hard  on  the  working-parts. 
So  long  as  the  lead  opening  at  the  beginning  of  the 
stroke  is  not  advanced  enough  to  produce  injurious 
counter-pressure  upon  the  piston,  it  improves  the 
working  of  the  engine  by  causing  a  prompt  opening 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  1 97 

for  steam  admission  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke. 
This  is  the  time  that  a  full  steam-pressure  is  wanted 
in  the  cylinder,  if  economical  working  be  a  considera- 
tion. A  judiciously  arranged  lead  opening  is  there- 
fore an  advantage ;  since  it  increases  the  port  opening 
at  the  proper  time  for  admitting  steam,  tending  to 
give  nearly  boiler-pressure  in  the  cylinder  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  stroke.  With  the  shifting  link-motion, 
the  amount  of  lead  opening  increases  as  the  links  are 
hooked  back  towards  the  center  notch ;  the  magnitude 
of  the  increase,  in  most  cases,  being  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  the  shortness  of  the  eccentric-rods.  A  com- 
mon lead  opening  in  full  gear  with  the  shifting  link  is 
TV  inch,  which  often  increases  to  f  inch  in  the  center 
notch.  The  tendency  of  wear  and  lost  motion  is  to 
neutralize  the  lead,  so  that  when  a  locomotive  motion 
gets  worn,  increasing  the  lead  will  generally  improve 
the  working  of  the  engine. 

NEGATIVE   LEAD. 

Lead  opening,  however,  has  its  disadvantages. 
When  the  eccentric-rods  are  short  the  lead  opening 
increases  so  rapidly,  as  the  links  are  notched  up  tow- 
ards the  center,  that  it  has  become  the  custom  on 
some  roads  to  set  the  valves  of  high-speed  engines 
lapping  all  over  the  port  at  the  beginning  of  the 
stroke.  This  practice  is  called  setting  the  valves  with 
negative  lead,  and  it  increases  the  efficiency  and 
power  of  the  engine  when  running  very  fast.  It  is 
very  common  to  find  the  valves  set  with  -^  inch  nega- 
tive lead. 


198  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

OPERATION  OF   THE    STEAM    IN   THE    CYLINDERS. 

As  the  work  performed  by  a  steam-engine  is  in  di- 
rect proportion  to  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  steam 
on  the  side  of  the  piston  which  is  pulling  or  pushing 
on  the  crank-pin,  it  is  important  that  the  steam  should 
press  only  on  one  side  of  the  piston  at  once.  Hence, 
good  engines  have  the  valves  operated  so  that,  by  the 
time  a  stroke  is  completed,  the  steam,  which  was 
pushing  the  piston,  shall  escape  and  not  obstruct  the 
piston  during  the  return  stroke,  and  so  neutralize  the 
steam  pressing  upon  the  other  side.  When  an  engine 
is  working  properly,  the  steam  is  admitted  alternately 
to  each  side  of  the  piston ;  and  its  work  is  done 
against  a  pressure  on  the  other  side  not  much  higher 
than  that  of  the  atmosphere. 

BACK   PRESSURE    IN   THE    CYLINDERS. 

When,  from  any  cause,  the  steam  is  not  permitted 
to  escape  promptly  and  freely  from  the  cylinder  at  the 
end  of  the  piston  stroke,  a  pressure  higher  than  that 
of  the  atmosphere  remains  in  the  cylinder,  obstructing 
the  piston  during  the  return  stroke,  and  causing  what 
is  known  as  back  pressure.  There  is  seldom  trouble 
for  want  of  sufficient  opening  to  admit  steam  to  the 
cylinders,  for  the  pressure  is  so  great  that  the  steam 
rushes  in  through  a  very  limited  space ;  but,  when  the 
steam  has  expanded  two  or  three  times,  its  pressure 
is  comparatively  weak,  and  needs  a  wide  opening  to 
get  out  in  the  short  time  allowed.  This  is  one  reason 
why  the  exhaust-port  is  made  larger"  than  the  admis- 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  1 99 

sion-ports.  Nearly  all  engines  with  short  ports  suffer 
more  or  less  from  back  pressure,  but  the  most  fruitful 
cause  of  loss  of  power  through  this  source  is  the  use 
of  extremely  contracted  exhaust  nozzles.  Were  it 
not  for  the  necessity  of  making  a  strong  artificial 
draught  in  the  smoke-stack,  so  that  an  intense  heat 
shall  be  created  in  the  fire-box,  quite  a  saving  of  power, 
now  lost  by  back  pressure,  would  be  effected  by  hav- 
ing the  exhaust  opening  as  large  as  the  exhaust-pipe. 
This  not  being  practicable  with  locomotives,  engineers 
should  endeavor  to  have  their  nozzles  as  large  as  pos- 
sible consistent  with  steam-making. 

Engines  with  very  limited  eccentric  throw  will  often 
cause  back  pressure  when  hooked  up,  through  the 
valve  not  opening  the  port  wide  enough  for  free  ex- 
haust. 

Locomotives  suffering  from  excessive  back  pressure 
are  nearly  always  logy.  The  engine  can  not  be  urged 
into  more  than  moderate  speed  under  any  .circum- 
stances ;  and  all  work  is  done  at  the  expense  of  lavish 
waste  of  fuel,  for  a  serious  percentage  of  the  steam- 
pressure  on  the  right  side  of  the  piston  is  lost  by  pres- 
sure on  the  wrong  side.  It  is  like  the  useless  labor  a 
man  has  to  do  turning  a  grindstone  with  one  crank, 
while  a  boy  is  holding  back  on  the  other  side.  The 
weight  of  obstruction  done  by  the  boy  must  be  sub- 
tracted from  the  power  exerted  by  the  man  to  find  the 
net  useful  energy  exerted  in  turning  the  grindstone. 
In  the  same  way,  every  pound  of  back  pressure  on  a 
piston  takes  away  a  pound  of  useful  work  done  by  the 
steam  on  the  other  side. 


2OO  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNN'ING. 

Excessive  lead  opening  acts  in  the  same  way,  since 
it  lets  steam  into  the  cylinder  to  obstruct  the  piston 
before  it  reaches  the  end  of  the  stroke. 

EFFECT    OF   TOO    MUCH    INSIDE    LAP. 

Engines  that  have  much  inside  lap  to  the  valves  are 
likely  to  suffer  from  back  pressure  when  high  speed  is 
attempted.  The  inside  lap  delays  the  release  of  the 
steam;  and,  where  the  piston's  velocity  is  high,  the 
steam  does  not  escape  from  the  cylinder  in  time  to 
prevent  back  pressure. 

RUNNING   INTO   A   HILL. 

Most  of  engineers  are  familiar  with  the  tendency  of 
some  engines  to  "  run  into  a  hill."  That  is,  so  soon 
as  a  hill  is  struck,  they  suddenly  slow  down  till  a  cer- 
tain speed  is  reached,  when  they  will  keep  going. 
This  is  generally  produced  by  back  pressure,  its  ob- 
structing effect  being  reduced  when  the  engine  is  mov- 
ing slow.  The  cause  is  nearly  always  too  much  lead- 
opening. 

COMPRESSION. 

The  necessity  which  requires  lap  to  be  put  on  a 
slide-valve  to  produce  an  early  cut-off,  in  its  turn 
causes  compression,  by  the  valve  passing  over  the 
steam-port,  and  closing  it  entirely  for  a  limited  period 
towards  the  end  of  the  return  stroke.  As  the  cylinder 
contains  some  steam  which  did  not  pass  out  while  the 
exhaust-port  was  open,  this  is  now  squeezed  into  a 
diminishing  space  by  the  advancing  piston.  In  cases 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  2OI 

where  too  much  steam  was  left  in  the  cylinders  through 
contracted  nozzles  or  other  causes,  or  where,  through 
mistaken  designing  of  the  valve-motion,  the  port  is 
closed  during  a  protracted  period,  the  steam  in  the 
cylinder  gets  compressed  above  boiler  tension,  and  loss 
of  useful  effect  is  the  result.  Under  proper  limits, 
the  closing  of  the  port  before  the  end  of  the  stroke, 
and  the  consequent  compression  of  the  steam  remain- 
ing in  the  cylinder,  have  a  useful  effect  on  the  work- 
ing of  the  engine  by  providing  an  elastic  cushion, 
which  absorbs  the  momentum  of  the  piston  and  its 
connections,  leading  the  crank  smoothly  over  the 
centre.  Where  it  can  be  so  arranged,  the  amount  of 
compression  desirable  for  any  engine  is  the  degree 
that,  along  with  the  lead,  will  raise  the  pressure  of  the 
cylinder  up  to  that  of  the  boiler  at  the  beginning  of 
the  stroke.  When  this  can  be  regulated,  the  com- 
pression performs  desirable  service  by  cushioning  the 
working-parts,  thereby  preventing  pounding,  and  by 
filling  up  the  clearance  space  and  steam  passages,  by 
that  means  saving  live  steam.  Compression  probably 
does  some  economical  service  by  reheating  the  cylinder, 
which  has  a  tendency  to  get  cooled  down  during  the 
period  of  release,  and  by  re-evaporating  the  water, 
which  forms  by  condensation  of  steam  in  the  cool  cylin- 
der. 

Engines  that  are  running  fast  require  more  cushion- 
ing than  those  that  run  slow,  or  at  moderate  speeds. 
The  link-motion,  by  its  peculiarity  of  hastening  com- 
pression when  the  links  are  hooked  up,  tends  to  make 
compression  a  useful  service  in  fast  running. 


202  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

DEFINITION    OF   AN    ECCENTRIC. 

The  reciprocating  motion  which  causes  the  valves 
to  open  and  close  the  steam-ports  at  the  proper  pe- 
riods, is,  with  most  locomotives,  imparted  from  ec- 
centrics fastened  upon  the  driving-axle.  An  eccentric 
is  a  circular  plate,  or  disk,  which  is  secured  to  the 
axle  in  such  a  position  that  it  will  turn  round  on  an 
'axis  which  is  not  in  the  center  of  the  'disk.  The  dis- 
tance from  the  center  of  the  disk  to  the  point  round 
which  it  revolves  is  called  its  eccentricity,  and  is  half 
the  throw  of  the  eccentric.  Thus,  if  the  throw  of  an 
eccentric  requires  to  be  5  inches,  the  distance  between 
the  center  of  the  driving-axle  and  the  center  of  the 
eccentric  will  be  2^  inches.  The  movement  of  an  ec- 
centric is  the  same  as  that  of  a  crank  of  the  same 
stroke,  and  the  eccentric  is  preferred  merely  because 
it  is  more  convenient  for  the  purposes  to  which  it  is 
applied  than  a  crank  would  be. 

EARLY   APPLICATION    OF   THE    ECCENTRIC. 

On  the  early  forms  of  locomotives,  a  single  ec- 
centric was  used  to  operate  the  valve  for  forward 
and  back  motion.  The  eccentric  was  made  with  a 
half  circular  slot,  on  which  it  could  be  turned  to  the 
position  needed  for  forward  or  back  motion.  It  was 
held  in  the  required  position  by  a  stop-stud  fastened 
on  the  axle.  Several  forms  of  movable  eccentrics 
were  invented,  and  received  considerable  application 
during  the  first  decade  of  railroad  operating;  but  the 
best  of  them  provided  an  extremely  defective  revers- 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  203 

ing  motion.  The  first  engineer  to  apply  two  fixed 
eccentrics  as  a  reversible  gear  was  William  T.  James 
of  New  York,  who  made  a  steam  carriage  in  1829,  and 
worked  the  engine  with  four  eccentrics, — two  for  each 
side.  The  eccentrics  were  connected  with  a  link,  but 
the  merits  of  that  form  of  connection  were  not  then 
recognized  here  ;  for  it  was  not  applied  to  locomotives 
till  it  became  popular  in  England,  and  was  reintro- 
duced  to  this  country  by  Rogers.  The  advantage  of 
the  double  fixed  eccentrics  seemed,  however,  to  be 
recognized  from  the  time  James  used  them ;  for  the 
plan  was  adopted  by  our  first  locomotive  builders. 
The  first  locomotive  built  by  Long,  who  started  in 
1833  what  was  afterwards  known  as  the  N orris  Lo- 
comotive Works,  Philadelphia,  had  four  fixed  eccen- 
trics. 

RELATIVE    MOTION    OF   PISTON   AND    CRANK,  SLIDE- 
VALVE,    AND    ECCENTRICS. 

When  a  locomotive  is  running,  the  wheels  turn  with 
something  near  a  uniform  speed ;  but  any  part  which 
receives  a  reciprocating  motion  from  a  crank  or  eccen- 
tric travels  at  an  irregular  velocity.  Fig.  9  shows  the 
relative  motion  of  the  crank-pin  and  piston  during  a 
half  revolution.  The  points  in  the  path  of  the  crank- 
pin  marked  A,  I,  2,  J5,  3,  4,  C,  are  at  equal  distances 
apart.  The  vertical  lines  run  from  them  to  the  points 
a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  represent  the  position  of  the  piston  in  re- 
lation to  the  position  of  the  crank-pin.  That  is,  while 
the  crank-pin  traverses  the  half-circle,  A  B  C,  to  make 
a  half  revolution,  the  piston,  guided  by  the  cross-head, 


204 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING, 


travels  a  distance  within  the  cylinder  equal  to  the 
straight  line  A  C.  The  crank-pin  travels  at  nearly 
uniform  speed  during  the  whole  of  its  revolution,  but 
the  piston  travels  with  an  irregular  motion.  Thus, 
while  the  crank-pin  travels  from  A  to  i,  the  piston 
travels  a  distance  equal  to  the  space  between  A  and  a. 


By  the  space  between  the  lines,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  piston  travels  slowly  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke, 
gets  faster  as  it  moves  along,  reaches  its  highest 
velocity  about  half  stroke,  then  slows  down  towards 
the  end  till  it  stops,  and  is  ready  for  the  return  stroke. 


ATTEMPTS   TO   ABOLISH    THE    CRANK. 

Certain  mechanics  and  inventors  have  been  terribly 
harassed  over  this  irregular  motion  -of  the  piston,  and 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  20$ 

numerous  devices  have  been  produced  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  a  uniform  motion  to  the  power  transmitted. 
These  inventions  have  usually  taken  the  shape  of 
rotary  engines.  Probably  the  fault  these  people  find 
with  the  reciprocating  engine  is  one  of  its  greatest 
merits,  for  the  piston  stopping  at  the  end  of  each 
stroke  permits  an  element  of  time  for  the  steam  to  get 
in  and  out  of  the  cylinder. 

VALVE    MOVEMENT. 

The  valve  travels  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  piston ; 
although  its  stroke  is  much  shorter,  and  its  slow 
movement  is  towards  the  limit  of  travel.  The  small 
circle  in  the  figure  shows  the  orbit  of  the  eccentric's 
center,  and  the  valve-travel  is  equal  to  the  rectilinear 
line  across  the  circle.  If  the  valve  opened  the  steam- 
ports  at  the  outside  of  its  travel,  the  slow  movement 
at  that  point  would  be  an  objection,  since  the  opera- 
tion of  opening  would  be  slow :  but  the  valve  opens 
the  ports  towards  the  middle  of  its  travel,  when  its 
velocity  is  'greatest;  and,  the  nearer  to  the  mid  travel 
the  act  of  opening  is  done,  the  more  promptly  it  will 
be  performed.  This  has  a  good  deal  to  do  with  mak- 
ing an  engine  "  smart  "  in  getting  away  from  a  station. 

EFFECT    OF    LAP    ON    THE    ECCENTRIC'S    POSITION. 

With  the  short  valve  without  lap  used  on  the  earli- 
est forms  of  locomotives,  the  eccentric  was  set  at  right 
angles  to  the  crank  or  "  square  "  on  the  dotted  line  ^, 
Fig.  10.  The  least  movement  of  the  eccentric  from  its 
middle  position  had  the  effect  of  opening  the  steam- 


206 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 


ports.  One  advantage  about  an  eccentric  set  in  this 
position,  was  that  it  opened  and  closed  the  ports  when 
moving  the  valve  at  its  greatest  velocity.  Lengthen- 
ing the  valve-face  by  providing  lap  entails  a  change  in 
the  location  of  the  eccentric;  for,  were  it  left  in  the 
right-angle  position,  the  steam-port  would  remain  cov- 
ered till  the  eccentric  had  moved  the  valve  a  distance 
equal  to  the  extent  of  the  lap  on  one  end,  and  the 
piston  would  begin  its  stroke  without  steam. 

ANGULAR   ADVANCE    OF    ECCENTRICS. 

The  change  made  on  the  eccentric  location  is  to  ad- 
vance it  from  e  to  F,  being  a  horizontal  distance  equal 

d 
Q 


FIG.  10. 


to  the  extent  of  lap  and  lead,  and  known  as  the  angu- 
lar advance  of  the  eccentric.  The  centers  F  and  B 
represent  the  full  part,  or  "belly,"  of  the  forward  and 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  2O/ 

back  eccentrics  in  the  position  they  should  occupy, 
where  a  rocker  is  employed,  when  the  piston  is  at  the 
beginning  of  the  backward  stroke.  It  will  be 'per- 
ceived that  the  eccentrics  both  incline  towards  the 
crank-pin,  and  the  eccentric  which  is  controlling  the 
valve  follows  the  crank-pin.  Thus,  when  the  engine 
is  running  forward,  /^'follows  the  crank:  when  she  is 
backing,  B  follows. 

It  is  a  good  plan  for  an  engineer  to  make  himself 
familiar  with  the  proper  position  of  the  eccentrics  in 
relation  to  the  crank,  for  the  knowledge  is  likely  to 
save  time  and  trouble  when  anything  goes  wrong  with 
the  valve-motion.  With  this  knowledge  properly  di- 
gested, a  minute's  inspection  is  always  sufficient  to 
decide  whether  or  not  anything  is  wrong  with  the 
eccentrics. 

ANGULARITY    OF   CONNECTING-ROD. 

In  following  out  the  relative  motion  of  the  piston 
and  crank,  we  discover  a  disturbing  factor  in  what  is 
called  the  angularity  of  the  connecting-rod,  which  has 
a  curiously  distorting  effect  on  the  harmony  of  the 
motion.  When  the  piston  stands  exactly  in  the  mid- 
travel  point,  the  true  length  of  the  main  rod  will  be 
measured  from  the  center  of  the  wrist-pin  to  the  center 
of  the  driving-axle.  If  a  tram  of  this  length  be 
extended  between  these  points,  this  will  be  found 
correct,  as  every  machinist  accustomed  to  working  on 
rods  knows.  Now,  if  the  back  end  of  the  tram  should 
be  raised  or  lowered  towards  the  points  where  the 
center  of  the  crank-pin  must  be  when  the  crank  stands 


208  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

on  the  top  or  bottom  quarter,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
tram  point  will  not  reach  the  crank-pin  center,  but  will 
fall  short  a  distance  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the 
main  rod.  The  dotted  lines  a'  and  b'  in  Fig.  1 1  show 


FIG.  ii. 

how  far  a  rod  7^  times  the  length  of  the  crank  falls 
short.  A  shorter  rod  will  magnify  this  obliquity, 
while  a  longer  rod  will  reduce  it. 

.  EFFECT   ON   THE   VALVE-MOTION    OF   CONNECTING- 
ROD   ANGULARITY. 

As  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  steam-ports  by 
the  valves  are  regulated  by  the  eccentrics,  which  are 
subject  to  the  same  motion  as  the  crank,  following  it 
at  an  unvarying  distance,  it  is  evident  that  their 
tendency  will  be  to  admit  and  cut  off  steam  at  a  certain 
position  of  the  crank's  movement.  If  the  motion  is 
planned  to  cut  off  at  half  stroke,  it  will  be  apparent, 
that,  in  the  backward  stroke,  the  piston  will  be  past 
its  mid-travel  before  the  crank-pin  reaches  the  quarter, 
so  that  end  of  the  cylinder  will  receive  steam  during 
more  than  half  the  stroke.  On  the  forward  stroke  of 
the  piston,  however,  the  crank-pin  will  reach  the 
quarter  before  the  piston  has  attained  half  travel ;  the 
consequence  being,  that  in  this  case  steam  is  cut  off 
too  early.  The  disturbing  effect  of  the  angularity  of 
the  connecting-rod  on  the  steam  distribution  thus  tends 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  2OQ 

to  make  the  cut-off  later  in  the  backward  stroke  than 
in  the  forward  stroke,  resulting  in  giving  the  forward 
end  of  the  cylinder  more  steam  than  what  is  admitted 
in  the  back  end.  The  link-motion  provides  a  con- 
venient means  of  correcting  the  inequality  of  valve 
opening  due  to  the  connecting-rod  angularity,  the 
details  of  which  will  be  explained  farther  on. 

AIDS   TO    THE   STUDY    OF   VALVE-MOTION. 

An  engineer  or  machinist  who  wishes  to  study  out 
this  peculiarity  of  connecting-rod  angularity,  will  find 
that  the  use  of  a  tram  or  long  dividers  will  help  him 
to  comprehend  it  better  than  any  letter-type  descrip- 
tion. All  through  the  study  of  the  valve-motion, 
there  are  numerous  difficult  problems  encountered. 
The  use  of  a  good  model  will  be  found  an  invaluable 
aid  to  the  study  of  the  valve-motion,  and  every 
division  of  engineers  or  firemen  should  make  a 
combined  effort  to  furnish  their  meeting-room  with 
a  model  of  a  locomotive  valve-motion.  In  no  way 
can  the  spare  time  of  the  men  connected  with 
locomotive  running  be  better  employed  than  in  the 
wide  range  for  study  presented  by  a  well-devised 
model.  Great  aid  can  be  obtained  in  the  study  of  the 
valve-motion  from  good  books  devoted  to  the  subject, 
and  they  will  impart  more  information  than  can  be 
obtained  by  mere  contact  with  the  locomotive.  The 
valve  and  its  movements  are  surrounded  with  so  many 
complicated  influences,  that  an  intelligent  man  may 
work  for  years  about  a  locomotive,  doing  valve  setting 
occasionally,  and  other  gang-boss  work,  yet,  unless  he 


21O  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNN'ING. 

studies  the  valve-motion  by  the  aid  of  the  drawing- 
board,  or  by  models,  which  admit  of  changing  sizes 
and  dimensions,  he  may  know  less  about  the  cause  of 
certain  movements  than  the  bright  lad  who  has  been  a 
couple  of  years  in  the  drawing-office.  The  man  who 
thinks  he  can  study  the  valve-motion,  and  understand 
its  philosophy,  by  merely  running  the  engine,  deceives 
himself.  The  engineer  who  never  looks  at  a  book  or 
a  paper  in  search  of  information  about  his  engine, 
knows  very  little  about  anything  not  visible  to  the 
eye.  Yet  many  men  of  this  stamp,  by  looking  wise, 
and  by  exercising  a  judicious  use  of  silence,  pass 
among  their  fellows  as  remarkably  profound.  But  let 
a  fireman,  in  quest  of  locomotive  knowledge,  put  a 
question  to  such  a  man,  and  he  is  immediately  silenced 
with  a  "  You  ought  to  know  better"  answer. 

Where  the  use  of  a  model  cannot  be  obtained,  any 
one  beginning  the  study  of  the  valve-motion  can  assist 
himself  by  making  a  cross-section  of  the  valve  and  its 
seat,  similar  to  those  published,  on  a  strip  of  thin  wood 
or  thick  paper.  By  slipping  the  valve  on  the  seat,  its 
position  at  different  parts  of  the  stroke  can  be  com- 
prehended more  clearly  than  by  a  mere  description. 
With  a  pair  of  dividers  to  represent  the  motion  of  the 
eccentric,  and  strips  of  wood  to  act  as  eccentric,  and 
valve  rod  and  rocker,  and  some  tacks  to  fasten  them 
together,  a  helpful  model  can  be  improvised  on  a  table 
or  board.  By  the  time  a  student  gets  a  rig  of  this 
kind  going,  he  will  see  his  way  to  contrive  other 
methods  of  self-help. 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  211 


EVENTS    OF   THE   PISTON    STROKE. 

By  the  aid  of  Fig.  10,  we  will  trace  the  relative 
movements  of  the  crank  and  eccentric  connections. 
For  the  sake  of  simplicity,  the  eccentric  is  represented 
as  connecting  directly  with  the  rocker-arm. 

The  crank-pin  being  at  the  point  A,  or  the  forward 
center,  the  piston  must  be  in  the  front  of  the  cylinder, 
or  at  the  beginning  of  the  backward  stroke.  Owing  to 
the  angular  advance  already  referred  to,  the  eccentric 
center  is  at  F\  and,  being  a  certain  distance  ahead  of 
the  middle  position,  it  has  pushed  the  lower  arm  of  the 
rocker  from  a  to  b,  drawing  back  the  top  arm,  which, 
in  its  turn,  has  moved  the  valve  so  that  it  is  just  be- 
ginning to  admit  steam  at  the  forward  port,  i.  As  the 
crank-pin  goes  round,  the  eccentric  follows  it,  opening 
the  steam-port  wider  till  the  eccentric  reaches  the 
point  of  its  travel  nearest  A,  the  limit  of  the  throw. 
When  the  eccentric  is  at  this  point  of  its  throw,  the 
valve  must  be  at  the  outside  of  its  travel ;  and  there- 
fore the  steam-port  is  wide  open.  By  this  time  the 
crank-pin  is  getting  close  up  towards  the  quarter. 
After  passing  this  point,  the  forward  eccentric  begins 
to  draw  the  bottom  rocker-pin  towards  the  axle,  and 
to  push  the  valve  ahead,  this  being  the  point  where 
the  valve  changes  its  direction  of  motion,  just  as  the 
piston  returns  when  the  crank-pin  passes  the  center. 
When  F  reaches  the  point  By  the  valve  is  in  the  same 
position  it  occupied  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke; 
but,  as  it  is  traveling  in  the  opposite  direction,  a  very 
small  movement  more  closes  the  port,  cutting  off  steam. 


212  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

When  this  happens,  the  crank-pin  has  reached  the 
point  x.  When  F  gets  to  g,  it  is  on  the  central  point 
of  its  throw;  so  the  valve  must  then  be  on  the  middle 
point  of  its  travel,  w.ith  the  exhaust  cavity  just  cover- 
ing the  outside  edges  of  the  bridges,  the  forward  edge 
being  ready  to  put  the  steam-port,  t,  in  communica- 
tion with  the  exhaust  cavity.  This  releases  the  steam 
from  the  forward  end  of  the  cylinder;  and  at  the  same 
moment  the  inside  edge  of  the  valve  covers  the  back 
port,  k,  causing  the  piston-head  to  compress  any  steam 
left  in  the  back  part  of  the  cylinder.  When  the  piston 
reaches  the  beginning  of  the  forward  stroke,  the  ec- 
centric F  has  got  to  the  point  /,  and  the  valve  is  be- 
ginning to  admit  steam  for  the  return  stroke,  the 
events  of  which  are  similar  to*  those  described. 

In  actual  practice,  the  steam  distribution  is  a  little 
different  from  the  manner  that  has  been  followed  ;  for 
the  link-motion  provides  the  means  of  equalizing  the 
cut-off,  making  it  uniform  for  both  strokes.  This 
changes  the  events  of  the  strokes  a  little ;  but  the 
student  who  engraves  in  his  mind  the  movements  as 
they  are  represented  in  the  diagram,  will  not  be  far 
astray. 

WHAT   HAPPENS   INSIDE   THE    CYLINDERS  WHEN  AN 
ENGINE   IS    REVERSED. 

Many  men  who  have  a  fair  understanding  of  the  ac- 
tion of  steam  in  an  engine's  cylinders  during  ordinary 
working,  have  no  idea  of  the  operations  performed  in 
the  cylinders  when  a  locomotive  is  running  in  reverse 
motion.  All  men  who  have  had  anything  to  do  with 


THE    VALVE-MOTION. 

train  service  know,  that,  when  an  engine  is  reversed, 
the  action  works  to  stop  the  train,  even  if  the  locomo- 
tive should  have  no  steam  on  the  boiler;  but  just  in 
what  way  this  result  comes  round  they  can  not  clearly 
perceive.  In  hopes  of  throwing  light  upon  this  sub- 
ject for  those  who  have  not  studied  it  out,  we  will 
follow  the  events  of  a  stroke  in  reversed  motion,  as 
we  did  in  the  ordinary  working. 

EVENTS    OF    THE    STROKE    IN    REVERSED     MOTION. 

Supposing  an  engine  to  be  running  ahead,  and  the 
necessity  arises  for  stopping  suddenly,  and  the  reverse- 
lever  is  pulled  into  the  back  notch.  When  the  crank- 
pin  is  on  the  forward  center,  and  therefore  the  piston 
at  the  forward  end  of  the  cylinder,  about  to  begin  its 
backward  stroke,  the  valve  has  the  forward  port  open 
a  distance  equal  to  the  amount  of  lead,  as  in  Fig.  10. 
But,  as  the  back-up  eccentric  has  control  of  the  valve, 
the  latter  is  being  pushed  forward ;  and  it  closes  the 
forward  port  just  as  the  piston  begins  to  move  back. 
This  shuts  off  all  communication  with  the  forward  end 
of  the  cylinder;  and  the  receding  piston  creates  a 
vacuum  behind  it,  just  as  a  pump-plunger  does  under 
similar  circumstances.  At  this  time  the  back  end  of 
the  cylinder  is  open  to  the  exhaust,  and  the  piston 
pushes  out  the  air  freely  to  the  atmosphere.  By  the 
time  the  piston  travels  about  two  inches,  the  valve 
gets  to  its  middle  position ;  and,  immediately  after 
passing  that  point,  it  opens  the  forward  end  of  the 
cylinder  to  the  exhaust,  and  closes  the  back  port. 
When  this  event  happens,  the  vacuum  in  the  forward 


214  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE   RUNNING. 

end  of  the  cylinder  gets  filled  with  hot  gases,  that 
rush  in  from  the  smoke-box;  and  the  receding  piston 
keeps  drawing  air  into  the  cylinder  in  this  way  during 
the  remainder  of  the  stroke,  and  air  from  that  quarter 
seldom  gets  in  without  bringing  a  sprinkling  of  cin- 
ders. The  back  steam-port  is  closed  only  during  about 
two  inches  of  the  stroke,  while  the  lap  of  the  valve  is 
traveling  over  it.  About  the  time  the  piston  reaches 
four  inches  of  its  travel,  the  back  steam-port  is  open 
to  the  steam-chest,  and  the  piston  forces  the  air 
through  the  steam-pipes  into  the  boiler  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  stroke.  The  forward  stroke  is  merely 
a  repetition  of  the  backward  stroke  described. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  reverse  a  locomotive,  it  is  a 
better  plan  to  hook  the  lever  clear  back  than  to  have  it 
a  notch  or  two  past  the  center,  as  some  men  persist  in 
doing,  under  the  mistaken  belief  that  they  are  in  some 
way  saving  their  engine  from  harsh  usage.  When  the 
link  is  reversed  full,  the  cylinders  are  merely  turned 
into  air-pumps.  'When  the  links  are  put  near  the  cen- 
ter, the  travel  of  the  valve  is  reduced ;  and  the  periods 
when  the  piston  is  creating  a  vacuum  in  one  end  of 
the  cylinder,  and  compressing  the  air  in  the  other,  are 
prolonged.  The  result  is,  that,  when  the  exhaust  is 
opened  in  the  first  case,  the  gases  rush  in  violently 
from  the  smoke-box,  carrying  a  heavy  load  of  cinders: 
in  the  other  case,  the  piston  compresses  the  air  in  the 
cylinder  so  high  that  it  jerks  the  valve  away  from  its 
seat  in  trying  to  find  outlet.  This  causes  the  clatter- 
ing noise  in  the  steam-chest,  so  well  known  in  cases 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  21$ 

where  engines  are  run  without  steam  while  the  reverse- 
lever  is  near  the  center. 

A  locomotive  with  the  piston-packing  in  bad  order 
will  not  hold  well  running  in  reverse-motion.  Some 
kinds  of  piston-packing  do  not  seem  to  act  properly 
when  the  engine  is  reversed,  especially  at  low  speed. 
Where  a  valve  has  much  inside  lap,  there  will  be  a 
vacuum  in  one  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  compressed 
air  in  the  other  end.  With  piston-packing  that  re- 
quires pressure  to  expand  it,  the  void  at  one  end  of 
the  cylinder  may  neutralize  the  pressure  at  the  other 
by  drawing  the  air  through  the  piston.  This  would 
be  most  liable  to  happen  where  the  lever  was  kept 
near  the  center. 


PURPOSE   OF   RELIEF-VALVE   ON   DRY   PIPE. 

Should  the  throttle-valve  close  so  tight  that  the 
compressed  air  from  the  cylinders  cannot  pass  into 
the  boiler,  there  is  danger  of  bursting  the  steam-chest 
or  some  part  of  the  steam-pipes.  The  compressed  air 
will  lift  most  of  the  throttle-valves  far  enough  to  pre- 
vent any  great  danger  from  this  source.  In  some 
engines  a  relief-valve  is  secured  in  the  dry  pipe,  which 
provides  a  passage  for  this  compressed  air.  When 
the  cylinder-cocks  of  an  engine  are  opened  when  the 
motion  is  reversed,  they  form  an  outlet  to  the  com- 
pressed air,  and  also  admit  air  to  the  sucking  end 
without  letting  the  piston  draw  air  so  freely  through 
the  nozzles.  Many  cylinder-cocks  are  now  made  so 


2l6  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE   RUNNING. 

that  they  will  open  automatically  to  permit  the  piston 
to  draw  air  through  them.  The  reversed  engine  will 
stop  nearly  as  well  with  the  cylinder-cocks  opened  as 
when  they  are  closed,  and  it  is  much  more  easily 
handled  with  the  cocks  opened.  Where  the  cocks 
are  kept  closed,  the  rush  of  hot  air  from  the  smoke- 
box  laps  every  trace  of  oil  from  the  valve-seat,  and  a 
heavy  pressure — frequently  above  that' of  the  boiler — 
is  present  in  the  steam-chest.  When  the  engine  stops 
under  these  circumstances,  its  tendency  is  to  fly  back; 
and  an  engineer  has  some  difficulty  in  controlling  it 
with  the  reverse-lever  till  a  few  turns  empty  the  chest 
and  pipes. 

USING   REVERSE-MOTION   AS   A   BRAKE. 

Numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  utilize  the 
reversed  engine  as  a  brake  for  stopping  the  train,  and 
even  by  this  means  to  save  some  of  the  power  lost  in 
stopping.  Chatelier,  a  French  engineer,  experimented 
for  many  years  on  this  mechanical  problem.  He  in- 
jected a  jet  of  water  into  the  exhaust-pipe,  which  sup- 
plied low-tension  steam  to  the  cylinder,  instead  of  hot 
gas  or  air  coming  through  the  smoke-box.  This  was 
pumped  back  into  the  boiler  on  the  return  stroke. 
Thus  the  act  of  stopping  a  train  was  used  to  compress 
a  quantity  of  steam,  converting  the  work  of  stopping 
into  heat,  which  was  forced  into  the  boiler  and  retained 
to  aid  in  getting  the  train  into  speed  again.  Modifi- 
cations of  this  idea  produce  the  car-starters  that  pass 
so  frequently  through  our  Patent  Office. 


THE    VALVE-MOTION.  2 1? 

As  a  means  of  conserving  mechanical  energy,  the 
Chatelier  brake  was  not  a  success;  but,  in  the  absence 
of  better  power  brakes,  it  met  with  some  applications 
in  Europe.  Some  of  our  mountain  railroads  use  it, 
under  the  name  of  the  water-brake,  as  an  auxiliary  to 
the  Westinghouse  automatic  brake. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 
THE   SHIFTING   LINK. 

EARLY    REVERSING   MOTIONS. 

IN  the  engineering  practice  of  the  world,  before  the 
locomotive  and  marine  engines  came  into  use,  there 
was  no  need  for  devices  to  make  engines  rotate  in 
more  than  one  direction.  When  the  need  for  a  rever- 
sible engine  first  arose,  it  was  met  by  very  crude 
appliances.  Locomotives  were  kept  at  work,  earning 
money  for  their  owners,  which  were  reversed  by  the 
man  in  charge  stopping  the  engine,  and  by  means  of  a 
wrench  changing  the  position  of  the  eccentric  by  hand. 
A  decided  improvement  on  the  wrench  was  the  mova- 
ble eccentric,  which  was  held  in  forward  or  back  gear 
by  stops;  the  operation  of  reversing  being  done  by  a 
treadle  or  other  attachment  located  near  the  engineer's 
position.  A  serious  objection  to  this  form  of  reversing 
gear  was,  that, the  abrasion  o*f  work  enlarged  the  slot 
ends,  and  wore  out  the  stops,  leading  to  inaccuracy 
and  frequent  breakage.  A  somewhat  better  form  of 
reversing  motion  was  a  fixed  eccentric,  with  the  means 
at  the  end  of  the  eccentric-rod  for  engaging  with  the 
top  or  bottom  of  a  rocker-shaft,  which  operated  the 
valve-stem.  This  was  the  form  of  -reversing  motion 

218 


TffE   SHIFTING   LI  NIC.  2 19 

used  on  the  early  Baldwin  engines.  Numerous  other 
appliances,  more  or  less  defective,  were  experimented 
with  before  the  double  fixed  eccentrics  were  intro- 
duced. Till  the  link  was  applied  to  valve-motion,  the 
double  eccentrics — an  American  invention — were  the 
most  important  improvement  that  had  been  made  on 
the  locomotive  valve-motion  since  the  incipiency  of 
the  engine.  The  V-hook,  in  connection  with  the 
double  eccentrics,  made  a  fair  reversing  motion  in 
comparison  to  anything  that  had  preceded  it.  The 
objection  to  the  hook  was,  that,  when  the  necessity 
arose  for  reversing  the  engine  while  in  motion,  much 
difficulty  was  experienced  in  getting  the  hook  to  catch 
the  pin.  As  a  simple,  prompt,  and  certain  reversing 
motion,  the  link  was  readily  acknowledged  to  be  far 
superior  to  anything  that  had  previously  been  tried. 

INVENTION   OF    THE    LINK. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  the  link  was  first  applied  to 
a  steam  engine  by  William  T.  James  of  New  York,  a 
most  ingenious  mechanic,  who  also  invented  the  double 
eccentrics.  James  experimented  a  great  deal  about 
the  period,  from  1830  to  1840,  with  steam  carriages 
for  common  roads;  and  it  was  in  this  connection  that 
he  invented  the  link.  His  work  having  proved  a 
commercial  failure,  the  improvements  on  the  valve- 
motion  were  not  recognized  at  the  time;  although 
the  probability  is  that  Long,  who  started  the  Norris 
Locomotive  Works  of  Philadelphia,  and  brought  out 
the  double  eccentrics  upon  the  locomotives  built  there. 


220  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGTNE  RUNNING. 

was  indebted  to  James  for  the  idea  of  a  separate 
eccentric  for  each  direction  of  engine  movement. 

The  credit  of  inventing  the  ordinary  shifting  link  is 
due  to  William  Howe  of  Newcastle,  England.  This 
inventor  was  a  pattern-maker  in  the  works  of  Robert 
Stephenson  &  Co.,  and  he  invented  the  link  in  1842 
in  practically  its  present  form.  The  idea  of  Howe 
was  to  get  out  an  improved  reversing  motion;  and  he 
made  a  pencil  sketch  of  the  link,  to  explain  his  views 
to  his  employers.  The  superintendent  of  the  works 
was  favorably  disposed  to  the  invention,  and  ordered 
Howe  to  make  a  pattern  of  the  motion,  which  was 
done;  and  this  was  submitted  to  Stephenson,  who 
approved  of  the  link,  and  directed  that  one  should  be 
tried  on  a  locomotive.  Although  Stephenson  gave 
Howe  the  means  of  applying  his  invention,  he  does 
not  seem  to  have  perceived  its  actual  value,  for  the 
link  was  not  patented ;  and  Stephenson  never  failed 
to  patent  any  device  which  he  thought  worth  pro- 
tecting. 

The  link-motion  was  applied  to  a  locomotive  con- 
structed for  the  Midland  Railway  Company,  and  proved 
a  success  from  the  day  it  was  put  on.  Seeing  how 
satisfactorily  the  invention  worked,  Robert  Stephen- 
son  paid  Howe  twenty  guineas  (one  hundred  and  five 
dollars)  for  the  device,  and  adopted  the  link  as  the 
valve-gear  for  his  locomotives.  This  is  how  the  shift- 
ing link  comes  to  be  called  the  "Stephenson  link" 
and  the  credit  for  this  invention  was  not  extravagantly 
paid  for. 

The  capability  which  the   link  possesses  of  varying 


THE  SHIFTING  LINK.  221 

the  steam  admission  and  release,  did  not  appear  to  be 
understood  by  the  inventor;  nor  was  the  mechanical 
world  aware,  for  some  time  after  the  link  was  brought 
into  use,  that  it  could  be  employed  to  adjust  the  in- 
equality of  steam  distribution,  due  to  the  angularity 
of  the  connecting  rod. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF   THE    SHIFTING    LINK. 

As  usually  constructed  for  American  locomotives, 
the  link  is  a  slotted  block  curved  to  the  arc  of  a  circle, 
with  a  radius  about  equal  to  the  distance  between  the 
center  of  the  driving- axle  and  the  center  of  the  rocker- 
pin.  The  general  plan  of  the  link-motion  is  shown  in 
Fig.  12.  Fitted  to  slide  in  the  link-slot  is  the  block 
which  encircles  the  rocker-pin.  The  eccentric-rods  are 
pinned  to  the  back  of  the  link ;  the  forward  eccentric- 
rod  connecting  with  the  top,  and  the  back-up  eccentric- 
rod  with  the  bottom,  of  the  link.  Bolted  to  the  side 
and  near  the  middle  of  the  link  is  the  saddle,  which 
holds  the  stud  to  which  the  hanger  is  attached  ;  this, 
in  its  turn,  connecting  with  the  lifting  arm,  which  is 
operated  by  the  reversing  rod  that  enables  the  engi- 
neer to  place  the  link  in  any  desired  position. 

ACTION    OF   THE    LINK. 

Regarded  in  its  simplest  form,  the  action  of  the  link 
in  full  gear  is  the  same  upon  the  valve  movement  as 
a  single  eccentric.  When  the  motion  is  working,  as  in 
the  figure,  with  the  eccentric-rod  pin  in  line  with  the 
rocker-pin,  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  movement  can 
not  differ  much  from  what  it  would  be  were  the  eccen- 


222 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 


trie-rod    attached    to   the   rocker.      Here  the   forward 
eccentric  appears  as   controlling  the  movement  of  the 


valve.      Putting  the  link  in  back  motion  brings  the  end 
of  the  backing  eccentric-rod  opposite  the  rocker-pin, 


THE   SHIFTING   LINK.  •  22$ 

the  effect  being  that  the  back-up  eccentric  then  oper- 
ates the  valve.  When  the  link-block  is  shifted  toward 
the  center  of  the  link,  the  horizontal  travel  of  the 
rocker-pin  is  decreased ;  consequently,  the  travel  of 
the  valve  is  reduced ;  for,  with  ordinary  engines,  the 
travel  of  the  valve  in  full  gear  equals  the  throw  of  the 
eccentrics,  the  top  and  bottom  rocker-arm  being  of 
the  same  length.  The  motion  transmitted  from  the 
eccentrics,  and  their  means  of  connection  with  the  link, 
make  the  latter  swing  as  if  it  were  pivoted  on  a  center 
which  had  a  horizontal  movement  equal  to  the  lap  and 
lead  of  the  valve.  The  extremities  of  the  link,  or 
rather  the  points  opposite  the  eccentric-rods,  swing  a 
distance  equal  to  the  full  throw  of  the  eccentric.  The 
variation  of  valve-travel  that  can  be  effected  by  the 
link,  is  from  that  of  the  eccentric  throw  in  full  gear 
down  to  a  distance  in  mid  gear  which  agrees  with  the 
extent  of  lap  and  lead.  The  method  of  obtaining  these 
various  degrees  of  travel  is  by  moving  the  link  so  that 
the  block  which  encircles  the  rocker-pin  shall  approach 
the  middle  of  the  link. 

When  an  engine  is  run  with  the  lever  in  the  center 
notch,  the  supply  of  steam  is  admitted  by  the  lead- 
opening  alone.  In  full  gear  the  eccentric,  whose  rod- 
end  is  in  line  with  the  rocker-pin,  exerts  almost  ex- 
clusive control  over  the  valve  movement ;  but,  as  the 
link-block  gets  hooked  towards  the  center,  it  comes  to 
some  extent  under  the  influence  of  both  eccentrics. 

A  thoughtful  examination  of  Fig.  12  will  throw 
light  on  the  reason  why  the  proper  position  of  a  slipped 
eccentric  can  be  determined  by  the  other  eccentric 


22  \  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  KUNNING. 

when  the  engine  is  on  the  center.  In  the  cut,  the 
crank-pin  is  represented  on  the  forward  center ;  and  in 
that  position  the  eccentric  centers  are  both  an  equal 
distance  in  advance  of  the  main  shaft  center.  It  will 
be  evident  now  that  the  valve  must  occupy  practically 
the  same  position  for  forward  or  back  gear,  as  each  of 
the  eccentric-rods  reaches  the  same  distance  forward. 
Putting  the  motion  in  back  gear  would  bring  the  back- 
up eccentric-rod  pin  to  the  position  now  occupied  by 
the  pin  belonging  to  the  forward  eccentric-rod. 

VALVE-MOTION   OF  A   FAST   PASSENGER    LOCOMOTIVE. 

Reducing  the  travel  of  the  valve  by  drawing  the  re- 
verse-lever towards  the  centre  of  the  quadrant,  and 
consequently  the  link-block  towards  the  middle  of  the 
link-slot,  not  only  hastens  the  steam  cut-off,  but  it 
accelerates  in  a  like  degree  every  other  event  of  steam 
distribution  throughout  the  stroke.  To  explain  this 
point,  let  us  take  the  motion  of  a  well-designed  engine 
in  actual  service,  which  has  done  good  economical 
work  on  fast  train  running.  The  valve-travel  is 
five  inches,  lap  one  inch,  no  inside  lap,  lead  in  full 
gear  -fa  inch,  point  of  suspension  T\  inch  back  of  cen- 
ter of  link. 

EFFECT    OF    CHANGING   VALVE-TRAVEL. 

When  this  engine  is  working  in  full  gear,  the  steam 
will  be  freely  admitted  behind  the  piston  till  about 
eighteen  inches  of  the  stroke,  when  cut-off  takes 
place ;  and  the  release  or  exhaust  opening  will  begin 


THE   SHIFTING   LINK.  22$ 

at  about  twenty-two  inches  of  the  stroke,  giving  four 
inches  for  expansion  of  steam.  Now,  if  the  links  of 
this  engine  are  hooked  up  so  that  the  cut-off  takes 
place  at  six  inches  of  the  stroke,  the  steam  will  be 
released  at  sixteen  inches  of  the  stroke ;  and  at  that 
point  compression  will  begin  at  the  other  end  of  the 
cylinder. 

WEAK    POINTS    OF   THE    LINK-MOTION. 

This  attribute  which  the  link-motion  possesses,  of 
accelerating  the  release  and  compression  along  with 
the  cut-off,  is  detrimental  to  the  economical  operating 
of  locomotives  that  run  slow.  High-speed  engines 
need  the  pre-release  to  give  time  for  the  escape  of  the 
steam  before  the  beginning  of  the  return  stroke ;  and 
the  compression  is  economically  utilized  in  receiving 
the  heavy  blow  from  the  fast-moving,  reciprocating 
parts,  whose  direction  of  motion  has  to  be  suddenly 
changed  at  the  end  of  each  stroke,  and  in  helping  to 
raise  the  pressure  promptly  in  the  cylinder  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  stroke.  A  locomotive,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  does  most  of  its  work  with  a  low-piston 
speed,  would  not  suffer  from  back  pressure  if  the  steam 
were  permitted  to  follow  the  piston  close  to  the  end  of 
the  stroke ;  and  a  very  short  period  of  compression 
would  suffice.  If  the  engine,  whose  motion  we  have 
been  considering,  instead  of  releasing  at  sixteen 
inches,  could  allow  the  steam  to  follow  the  piston  to 
twenty-two  inches  of  the  stroke,  after  cutting  off  at 
six  inches,  a  very  substantial  gain  of  power  would  en- 
sue. And  this  would  be  well  supplemented  by  avoid- 


226  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

ing  loss  of  power,  did  compression  not  begin  till  within 
two  inches  of  the  return  stroke. 

WHY     DECREASING     THE     VALVE-TRAVEL     INCREASES 
THE    PERIOD    OF   EXPANSION. 

Increase  of  expansion  follows  reduced  valve-travel, 
from  a  similar  cause  to  that  which  produces  expansion 
when  lap  is  added  to  the  edge  of  a  slide-valve.  When 
the  valve  is  made  with  the  face  merely  long  enough  to 
cover  the  steam-ports,  there  can  be  no  expansion  of 
the  steam ;  for,  so  soon  as  the  valve  ceases  to  admit 
steam,  it  opens  the  steam-port  to  the  exhaust.  When 
lap  is  added,  however,  the  steam  is  inclosed  in  the 
cylinder,  without  egress  for  the  time  that  it  takes  the 
lap  to  travel  over  the  steam-port.  An  arrangement  of 
motion  which  will  make  the  valve  travel  quickly  over 
the  port,  has  a  tendency  to  shorten  the  period  for  ex- 
pansion ;  while  making  the  valve  travel  slowly  over  the 
port,  has  the  opposite  effect,  and  protracts  expansion. 
A  valve  with,  say,  five  inches  travel,  has  a  compara- 
tively long  journey  to  make  during  the  stroke  of  the 
piston ;  and  the  lap-edges  will  pass  quickly  over  the 
steam-ports, — much  more  quickly  than  they  will  when 
the  travel  is  reduced  to  three  inches.  In  a  case  of  this 
kind,  there  is  more  than  the  mere  reduction  of  travel 
to  be  considered.  Suppose  the  valve  has  one  inch  lap 
at  each  end.  When  it  stands  on  the  middle  of  the 
seat,  it  has  a  reciprocating  motion  of  two  and  one-half 
inches  at  each  side  of  that  point  to  make.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  stroke,  it  has  been-  drawn  aside  one 
inch  (we  will  ignore  the  lead),  but  still  has  one  and 


THE   SHIFTING   LINK.  22/ 

one-half  inch  to  travel  before  it  begins  to  return.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  the  travel  is  reduced  to  three 
inches,  the  valve  has  only  one  and  one-half  inch  to 
travel  away  from  the  center;  and,  one  inch  being 
moved  to  draw  the  lap  over  the  port,  there  only  re- 
mains one-half  inch  for  the  valve  to  move  before  it 
must  begin  returning.  This  entails  an  early  cut-off; 
for  the  valve  must  pass  over  the  ports  with  its  slow 
motion,  and  be  ready  to  open  the  port  on  the  other 
end,  before  the  return  stroke.  Thus  a  travel  of  five 
inches  draws  the  outside  edge  of  the  valve  one  and 
one-half  inch  away  from  the  outside  of  the  steam- 
ports,  three  inches  travel  only  draws  it  one-half  inch 
away,  and  a  greater  reduction  of  travel  decreases  the 
opening  in  like  proportion. 

INFLUENCE  OF  ECCENTRIC  THROW  ON  THE  VALVE. 

As  reducing  the  travel  of  the  valve  diminishes  the 
port  opening,  a  point  is  reached  in  cutting  off  early  in 
the  stroke  where  the  port  opening  is  hardly  any  more 
than  the  port  opening  due  to  the  lead.  This  is  what 
makes  long- steam-ports  essential  for  a  successful  high- 
speed locomotive.  The  best-designed  engines  give  an 
exceedingly  limited  port  opening  at  short  cut-offs,  and 
badly  planned  motion  sometimes  seriously  detracts 
from  the  efficiency  of  the  engine,  by  curtailing  the 
opening  at  the  point  where  a  very  brief  time  is  given 
for  the  admission  of  steam.  The  magnitude  of  the 
eccentric  throw  exerts  a  direct  influence  on  the  port 
opening  when  cutting  off  early.  A  long  throw  tends 
to  increase  the  opening,  while  a  short  throw  reduces 


228  .   LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

it.  The  long-throw  eccentric  will  draw  the  valve 
farther  away  from  the  edge  of  the  steam-port,  when 
admitting  steam  for  the  same  point  of  cut-off,  than  a 
short-throw  eccentric  will  move  its  valve.  For  an  or- 
dinary 17  X  24  inch  locomotive,  the  throw  of  eccentric 
should  not  be  less  than  five  inches,  unless  the  engine 
is  intended  entirely  for  slow  running.  There  are 
many  engines  running  with  eccentric  throw  less  than 
five  inches,  but  they  are  invariably  slow  unless  the 
valve  lap  is  very  short.  With  an  ordinary  lap,  an  en- 
gine having  an  eccentric  throw  of  4^  inches  needs  so 
much  angular  advance  to  overcome  the  lap,  and  pro- 
vide lead,  'that  the  rectilineal  motion  of  the  eccentric 
is  very  meagre  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke.  That 
is,  the  center  of  the  eccentric  is  traveling  downward 
in  its  circular  path,  which  gives  little  motion  to  the 
valve,  just  as  the  crank  gives  decreased  motion  to  the 
cross-head  when  near  the  centers. 

HARMONY    OF    WORKING-PARTS. 

Hitherto  we  have  regarded  the  link  as  merely  per- 
forming the  functions  of  transmitting  the  motion  of 
the  eccentrics  to  the  valves,  with  the  additional  capabil- 
ity of  reducing  the  travel  at  the  will  of  the  engineer. 
Otherwise,  the  motion  of  the  link  is  intensely  com- 
plex; and  its  movements  are  susceptible  to  a  multi- 
tude of  influences,  which  improve  or  disturb  its  action 
on  the  valve.  A  good  valve-motion  is  planned  ac- 
cording to  certain  dimensions  of  all  the  working-parts; 
and  any  change  in  their  arrangement  will  almost  inva- 
riably entail  irregularities  upon  the  link's  movement, 


THE   SHIFTING   LINK.  22$ 

which  will  radically  affect  the  distribution  of  steam. 
A  link-motion  schemed  for  an  eccentric  throw  of  4^ 
inches  will  not  work  properly  if  the  throw  be  increased 
to  five  inches;  a  link  with  a  radius  of  57  inches  can 
not  be  changed  with  impunity  for  one  of  60  inches. 
Any  change  in  the  position  of  the  tumbling-shaft  or 
rocker-arms  distorts  the  whole  motion,  and  any  alter- 
ation in  the  length  of  the  rods  or  hangers  has  a  simi- 
lar effect.  That  the  link  may  perform  its  functions 
properly,  all  its  connections  must  remain  in  harmony. 

ADJUSTMENT    OF    LINK. 

A  very  important  feature  of  the  link  is  its  property 
of  adjustability,  which  serves  to  neutralize  the  distort- 
ing effect  of  the  connecting-rod's  angularity.  As  has 
already  been  explained,  the  angularity  of  the  main 
rod  tends  to  delay  the  cut-off  during  the  backward 
stroke,  while  it  is  accelerated  in  the  forward  stroke. 
With  the  ordinary  length  of  connections,  this  irregu- 
larity would  seriously  affect  the  working  of  the  engine. 
But  it  is  almost  entirely  overcome  by  the  link,  which 
can  be  suspended  in  a  way  that  will  produce  equality 
for  the  period  of  admission  and  point  of  cut-off  for  both 
strokes  in  one  gear.  Perfect  equalization  of  admission 
and  cut-off  for  both  gears  has  been  found  impossible 
with  the  link-motion ;  and  designers  are  generally  sat- 
isfied to  adjust  the  forward  motion,  and  permit  the 
back  motion  to  remain  untrue.  The  point  about  the 
link  which  exercises  the  most  potent  influence  on  ad- 
justing the  cut-off,  is  the  position  of  the  saddle,  or  of 
its  stud  for  connecting  the  hanger.  This  stud  is  called 


230  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

the  point  of  suspension.  Raising  the  saddle  away 
from  the  center  of  the  link  will  effect  adjustment  of 
steam  admission ;  but  in  locomotive  practice  the  sad- 
dle is  nearly  always  located  in  the  middle  of  the  link, 
there  being  practical  objections  against  raising  it. 
Equalization  of  steam  distribution  is  produced  by  plac- 
ing the  hanger-stud  or  point  of  suspension  some  dis- 
tance back  of  the  center  line  of  the  link-slot,  the  dis- 
tance varying  from  O  to  f  inch. 

Moving  the  hanger-stud  affects  the  link's  movement 
in  a  way  that  is  equivalent  to  temporarily  lengthening 
the  eccentric-rod  during  a  portion  of  the  piston-stroke. 
The  length  of  the  tumbling-shaft  arms,  the  length  of 
hanger,  the  location  of  the  rockers  and  tumbling-shaft, 
the  radius  of  link,  and  length  of  rods,  all  exercise  in- 
fluence on  the  accurate  adjustment  of  the  valve- 
motion. 

SLIP    OF   THE   LINK. 

In  equalizing  the  valve-motion,  and  overcoming  the 
discrepancy  of  steam  admission,  due  to  the  angularity 
of  the  connecting-rod  by  moving  the  link-hanger  stud 
away  from  the  center  of  the  slot,  a  new  distortion  is 
introduced.  The  link-block  being  securely  fastened 
to  the  bottom  of  the  rocker-pin,  moves  in  the  fixed 
arc  traversed  by  that  pin,  which  is  nearly  horizontal. 
The  action  of  the  eccentric  rods  on  the  link,  on  the 
other  hand,  forces  the  latter  to  move  with  a  sort  of 
vertical  motion  at  certain  parts  of  the  stroke,  making 
it  slip  on  the  block.  Moving  the  hanger-stud  back 
tends  to  increase  this  slip,  which  will  become  excess- 


THE  SHIFTING   LINK.  2$1 

ive  enough  to  seriously  impair  the  efficiency  of  the 
motion  if  not  kept  within  bounds  by  the  designer. 
Where  the  slip  is  very  great,  the  motion  will  not  be 
serviceable,  a  consideration  which  can  never  be  over- 
looked ;  for  the  block  will  wear  rapidly,  producing 
lost  motion,  a  very  undesirable  defect  about  any  part 
of  a  link-gear.  With  the  long  rods  which  prevail  in 
locomotive  practice,  designers  have  no  difficulty  in 
keeping  the  slip  within  practical  bounds;  but  with 
marine  engines  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  sacrifice 
equality  of  steam  admission  to  the  reduction  of  the 
slip.  The  greatest  amount  of  slip  is  in  full  gear,  and 
it  diminishes  as  the  link-block  is  moved  towards  the 
center. 

Placing  the  eccentric-rod  pins  back  of  the  link-arc, 
as  is  almost  universally  done  in  this  country,  has  a 
tendency  to  make  the  link  slip  on  the  block ;  and  care 
has  to  be  taken  not  to  locate  these  pins  farther  back 
than  is  actually  necessary  for  other  requirements  of 
the  link-motion's  adjustment.  Auchincloss,  who  is  a 
recognized  authority  for  designing  of  link-motion, 
gives  four  varieties  of  alterations  capable  of  reducing 
the  slip  when  it  is  found  too  great  for  practicable 
motion.  His  resorts  are,  either  to  increase  the  angu- 
lar advance,  reduce  the  travel,  increase  the  length  of 
link,  or  shorten  the  eccentric-rods.  One  or  a  com- 
bination of  these  methods  may  be  adopted,  as  the  de- 
signer finds  most  convenient. 


232  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

RADIUS    OF    LINK. 

Among  the  constructing  engineers  who  plan  link 
motion,  there  is  considerable  diversity  of  opinion 
about  what  radius  of  link  helps  to  produce  the  best 
valve-motion.  The  distance  between  the  center  of 
axle  and  center  of  lower  rocker-pin  may  be  accepted 
as  approximately  correct,  although  some  designers 
slightly  increase  beyond  these  points.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  locomotives  sent  out  from  a  leading  build^ 
ing  establishment  have  the  radius  of  link  drawn  f  inch 
per  foot  short  of  the  distance  between  the  axle  and 
rocker;  and  the  claim  has  been  made,  that  the  arrange- 
ment produces  an  excellent  motion. 

A  committee  of  the  American  Master  Mechanics' 
Association  have  placed  themselves  on  record  on  this 
subject  by  asserting  that  the  distance  between  the 
centers  of  axle  and  rocker-pin  is  the  proper  radius  for 
the  link.  That  same  committee  recommended  that 
the  link-motion  should  be  planned  to  give  as  long  a 
link-radius  as  possible,  subject  to  the  first-mentioned 
conditions. 

It  must  be  noted  that  the  middle  of  the  link-slot  is 
the  radius  arc.  I  knew  of  a  case  where  the  links  for 
an  altered  locomotive  were  finished  out  of  the  true 
radius  through  the  edge  of  the  slot  being  taken  as  the 
radius-curve. 

INCREASE    OF    LEAD. 

Most  of  the  men  who  are  at  all  familiar  with  the 
valve-motion  are  aware  of  the  fact  that,  with  the  shift- 


THE   SHIFTING   LINK. 


233 


ing  link,  the  lead  increases  as  the  link  is  notched 
towards  the  center.  Where  the  valve  has  T^-inch 
lead  in  full  gear,  it  is  no  unusual  thing  to  find  it  in- 
crease to  J-inch  lead  opening  at  mid  gear.  The 
phenomenon  is  better  known  than  its  cause  is  under- 
stood. 

The  relative  positions  of  link  and  eccentric  centers 
of  an  engine,  when  the  crank  is  on  the  forward  center, 
are  shown  in  Fig.  13  ;  the  link  being  represented  with 


FIG.  13. 

the  block  in  the  center,  which  represents  mid  gear.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  centers  of  the  eccentrics  / 
and  b,  from  which  the  rods  receive  direct  influence, 
are  both  some  distance  ahead  of  the  center  of  the 
axle,  the  one  above,  the  other  below.  The  eccentric- 
straps  to  which  the  rods  are  connected  sweep  round 
the  eccentric  circles,  and  are  controlled  thereby. 
When  the  link  is  moved  up  or  down,  each  eccentric- 
rod  pin,  where  it  attaches  to  the  link,  describes  the 
arc  of  a  circle  with  a  radius  drawn  from  its  own  eccen- 
tric. If  both  rods  were  worked  with  a  radius  from 
the  axle-center,  the  link  could  be  raised  and  lowered 
when  the  engine  stands  on  the  dead  center  without 
moving  the  rocker-pin  at  all ;  but,  under  the  existing 
arrangement,  the  link  is  influenced  directly  by  one  or 
other  of  the  eccentrics,  whatever  position  in  the  link 


234 


LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 


the  block  may  stand.  When  the  engine  is  standing 
on  the  forward  center,  with  the  link  in  mid  gear,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  13,  it  will  be  readily  perceived  that  the 
block  stands  at  its  farthest  point  away  from  the  axle ; 
for  the  rods  are  so  placed  to  reach  their  greatest  hor- 
izontal distance  ahead,  and  consequently  in  this  posi- 
tion the  lead  opening  is  greatest.  If  the  link  be  now 
lowered,  the  backing  eccentric-rod  will  immediately 
begin  to  pull  the  link  back:  and,  as  the  pin  of  the 
forward  eccentric-rod  approaches  the  central  line  of 
motion,  it  will  also  keep  drawing  the  link  back;  so 
that,  by  the  time  the  link  is  in  full  gear,  the  lead 
opening  will  be  considerably  reduced. 

When  the  engine  stands  on  the  back  dead  center, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  14,  the  eccentric  centers  will  be  on 


FIG.  14. 

the  other  side  of  the  axle,  and  the  eccentric-rods  will 
be  crossed.  While  in  mid  gear,  the  link-block  is 
drawn  closer  to  the  axle  than  it  would  be  in  any  other 
position  of  the  link;  and  consequently  the  lead  open- 
ing is  greatest.  If  the  link  be  now  lowered,  the  for- 
ward eccentric-rod  will  approach  its  horizonal  position, 
and  consequently  reaches  farther  on  the  central  line  of 
motion,  so  it  will  push  the  link-block  away  from  the 
axle,  thereby  decreasing  the  lead.  Pulling  the  link 
into  back  gear  has  a  similar  effect. 


THE   SHIFTING   LINK. 

The  tendency  of  a  link-motion  to  increase  the  lead 
towards  the  center  is  made  greater  by  shortening  the 
eccentric-rods.  Increasing  the  throw  of  eccentric  in- 
clines to  accelerate  the  lead  towards  the  center,  since 
it  throws  the  eccentric  centers  farther  apart.  For 
slow  running,  hard-pulling  locomotives,  where  increase 
of  lead  is  a  disadvantage,  the  tendency  to  increase  the 
lead  is  sometimes  restrained  in  forward  gear  by  reduc- 
ing the  angular  advance  of  the  backing  eccentric. 
This  expedient  is,  however,  not  necessary  where 
proper  care  and  intelligence  have  been  bestowed  in 
the  original  design  of  the  motion- 
In  studying  this  part  of  the  valve-motion,  a  young 
machinist  or  engineer  will  obtain  valuable  assistance 
by  cutting  a  link  template  out  of  a  piece  of  paste- 
board, and  using  strips  of  wood  as  eccentric-rods. 
With  these  he  can  test  on  a  drawing-board  or  table 
the  various  positions  of  the  link,  and  note,  in  a  way 
that  is  easily  understood,  the  effect  of  changing  the 
link  into  different  positions. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

SETTING  THE   VALVES. 

THE    MEN    WHO    LEARN    VALVE-SETTING. 

MOST  of  intelligent  machinists  engaged  on  engine- 
work  make  it  an  object  of  ambition  to  learn  to  set 
valves;  and  the  operation  is  mastered  as  soon  as  the 
opportunity  offers.  It  has  been  a  practice  in  numerous 
shops  for  those  who  have  the  work  of  valve-setting  to 
do,  to  invest  the  operation  with  fictitious  mystery,  to 
patiently  disseminate  the  belief  that  valve-setting  is 
an  exceedingly  difficult  matter.  Cases  sometimes 
arise  where  the  squaring  of  an  engine's  valves  is  really 
an  arduous  task,  requiring  intimate  familiarity  with 
delicate  methods  of  adjustment ;  but  valve-setting,  as 
it  is  usually  practiced  in  building  establishments,  in 
repairing-shops,  and  in  round-houses,  is  merely  a 
matter  of  plain  measurement. 

A  man  may  be  a  first-class  engineer  without  know- 
ing how  to  set  valves,  and  familiar  acquaintance  with 
the  operation  will  not  increase  his  ability  in  managing 
his  engine  when  merely  getting  a  train  over  the  road 
on  time  is  the  consideration  ;  but  the  method  of  valve- 
setting  is  so  closely  associated  with  an  intelligent  ap- 

236 


SETTING    THE    VALVES.  237 

preciation  of  the  valve-motion's  philosophy,  that  most 
of  engineers  who  take  an  extended  interest  in  their 
business,  wish  to  acquire  the  knowledge  of  how  the 
valves  are  set. 

BEST   WAY   TO    LEARN   VALVE-SETTING. 

The  best  way  to  learn  valve-setting  is  by  taking  part 
in  the  work.  Whatever  can  be  said  in  books  on  a 
subject  of  this  kind,  provides  but  an  indifferent  sub- 
stitute for  going  through  the  actual  operations.  But 
a  man's  ambition  to  learn  may  exceed  his  opportunities ; 
so,  for  those  who  cannot  get  a  gang  boss  to  direct  them 
into  the  art  of  valve-setting,  this  description  will  be 
made  as  plain  as  possible. 

When  an  engine's  valve-motion  is  designed,  the 
sizes  of  the  different  parts  are  arranged;  and,  if  this 
business  is  done  by  a  competent  engineer,  there  will 
only  be  trifling  changes  necessary  in  valve-setting. 

PRELIMINARY  OPERATIONS. 

Let  us  suppose  the  engine  to  be  an  ordinary  eight- 
wheel  locomotive,  with  cylinders  17  X  24  inches.  Let 
us  assume  that  the  top  and  bottom  rocker-arms  are 
straight,  of  equal  length,  and  that  the  eccentric-rods 
are  connected  to  the  link  so  as  to  be  opposite  the  block 
in  full  gear.  This  will  make  the  extreme  travel  of 
valve  equal  the  eccentric's  throw.  We  will  now  look 
round  to  see  that  everything  connected  with  the 
motion  is  ready  for  valve-setting. 

First,  it  is  necessary  to  see  that  the  wedges  are 
properly  set  up  to  hold  the  driving-boxes  in  about  the 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 


same  position  they  will  occupy  when  the  engine  is  at 
work. 

CONNECTING   ECCENTRIC-RODS   TO    LINK. 

In  looking  over  the  motion,  it  is  well  to  note  that 
the  eccentric-rods  are  properly  connected, — the  for- 
ward eccentric-rod  with  the  top,  the  backward  eccen- 
tric-rod with  the  bottom,  of  the  link.  When  the  crank- 
pin  is  on  the  forward  center,  the  eccentrics  will  occupy 
the  position  they  appear  in,  in  Fig.  I5>  where  the  rods 


FIG.  15. 

are  open,  and  nearly  horizontal.  The  full  parts  of 
both  eccentrics  are  advanced  towards  the  crank-pin, 
so  that  the  centers  of  the  eccentrics  are  advanced  from 
a  perpendicular  line  drawn  through  center  of  axle,  a 
horizontal  distance  equal  to  the  lap  and  lead.  When 
the  crank-pin  is  on  the  back  center,  the  eccentric 


FIG.  16. 


centers  will  be  behind  the  axle,  and  the  rods  will  be 
crossed  as  they  are  seen  in  Fig.  16.   -  The  reason  why 


SETTING    THE    VALVES. 


239 


the  rods  must  be  crossed  when  the  crank  is  in  this 
position,  is,  that  the  forward  eccentric  center  is  below 
the  axle,  and  the  backward  eccentric  center  is  above. 
As  the  forward  eccentric-rod  maintains  its  connection 
with  the  top  of  the  link,  and  the  backward  eccentric- 
rod  is  at  the  opposite  end,  crossing  of  the  rods  is  in- 
evitable. This  fact  is  worth  imprinting  on  the  mem- 
ory, for  I  have  known  of  several  cases  where  men  got 
the  rods  up  wrong  by  putting  them  open  when  the 
engine  stood  with  the  crank  on  the  back  center. 

MARKING   THE    VALVE-STEM. 

In  ordinary  practice,  valves  are  set  with  the  steam- 
chest  cover  down,  and  the  position  of  the  valve  on  the 
seat  is  identified  by  marks  on  the  valve-stem.  Before 
the  cover  is  put  down,  the  valve  is  placed  as  in  Fig. 
17,  just  beginning  to  open  the  forward  steam-port;  a 


FIG.  17. 

thin  piece  of  tin  being  generally  used  to  gauge  the 
opening.  When  the  valve  stands  in  this  position,  a 
tram  is  extended  from  a  center  punch-mark  c,  on  the 
stuffing-box,  straight  along  the  valve-stem  as  far  as  it 
will  reach  *  and  the  point,  here  located  at  a,  is  marked. 
The  valve  is  then  moved  forward  till  it  begins  to  un- 
cover the  back  port,  when  another  measurement  is 


240  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

made  with  the  tram,  which  "locates  the  point  b  on  the 
Valve-stem.  Whatever  position  the  valve  may  stand 
on,  it  may  now  be  identified  by  the  tram.  When  the 
tram  cuts  the  space  half-way  between  a  and  b,  the 
Valve  stands  in  the  middle  of  the  seat. 

Some  machinists  do  not  believe  in  tramming  from 
the  stuffing-box,  as  the  point  is  liable  to  be  moved  in 
tightening  down  the  steam-chest  cover.  These  gen- 
erally measure  from  a  point  on  the  cylinder  casting, 
but  that  practice  has  its  drawbacks. 

LENGTH    OF    THE    VALVE-ROD. 

To  prove  the  correct  length  of  the  valve-rod,  the 
rocker-arm  is  set  at  right  angles  to  the  valve-seat, 
which  is  its  middle  position.  The  valve  must  now 
stand  on  the  middle  of  the  seat,  which  will  be  indicated 
by  the  tram  point  reaching  the  dividing  point  between 
a  and  b.  Should  the  valve  not  be  right  when  the 
rocker  is  in  its  middle  position,  the  rod  must  be  altered 
to  put  it  right. 

ACCURACY    ESSENTIAL   IN   LOCATING   THE   DEAD- 
CENTER  POINTS. 

Before  proceeding  to  set  the  valves,  a  machinist  can 
not  be  too  careful  in  locating  the  exact  dead  centers. 
Some  men  conclude,  because  there  is  little  motion  to 
the  cross-head  close  to  the  end  of  the  stroke,  that  a 
slight  movement  of  the  wheel  to  one  side  or  the  other 
is  of  little  consequence,  and  makes  no  perceptible 
difference  in  the  relative  positions  of  piston  and  valve. 
This  is  a  serious  mistake ;  for,  although  the  piston  is 


SETTING    THE    VALVES.  24! 

moving  slowly,  the  eccentric  is  proceeding  at  its 
ordinary  speed,  and  the  valve  is  moving  fast.  The 
loose,  quick  methods  of  finding  dead-centers  followed 
occasionally  are  not  conducive  to  exactness,  and  nothing 
but  accuracy  is  permissible  in  valve-setting. 

FINDING    THE    DEAD-CENTERS. 

The  best  way  of  finding  the  true  center  is  by  moving 
the  cross-head  a  measured  distance  round  its  extreme 
travel,  recording  the  extent  of  movement  on  the  driv- 
ing-wheel tire,  whose  motion  is  uniform ;  then  bisect- 
ing the  distance  between  the  marks  on  the  tire,  when 
the  dividing-line  will  indicate  the  true  center. 

Thus:  Turn  the  wheels  forward  till  the  cross-head 
reaches  within  one-half  inch  of  its  extreme  travel,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  18.  From  a  points  on  the  guide-block 


FIG.  18. 

extend  a  tram  on  the  cross-head,  and  mark  the  ex- 
treme point  reached  b.  Put  a  center-punch  mark  c  on 
the  wheel-cover,  or  other  convenient  fixed  point,  and 
from  it  extend  a  tram  on  the  edge  of  the  tire,  and 
scratch  an  arc  d.  Now,  with  tram  in  hand,  watch  the 


242  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

cross-head,  and  have  the  wheels  moved  forward  slowly. 
When  the  cross-head  passes  the  center,  and  moves 
back  till  the  tram  extending  from  a  will  reach  the  point 
b,  stop  the  motion.  Again  tram  from  the  wheel-cover 
point,  and  describe  a  second  arc  on  the  tire,  which  will 
be  at  e,  now  moved  to  the  position  which  d  occupied 
when  the  previous  measurement  was  taken.  With  a 
pair  of  dividers  bisect  the  distance  between  d  and  e. 
Mark  the  dividing-point  C  with  a  center-punch,  and 
put  a  chalk-ring  round  it.  When  the  wheel  stands  so 
that  the  tram  will  extend  from  c  to  C,  the  engine  will 
be  on  the  forward  dead-center. 

All  the  other  centers  must  be  found  by  a  similar 
process. 

TURNING   WHEELS   AND    MOVING   ECCENTRICS. 

When  a  measurement  is  going  to  be  made  for  fore 
gear,  the  wheels  must  be  turned  forward  ;  and,  when 
it  is  for  the  back  gear,  they  must  be  turned  backward. 
Enough  movement  of  the  wheel  must  be  given  to  take 
up  the  lost  motion  every  time  the  direction  of  move- 
ment is  changed.  In  moving  an  eccentric,  it  should 
also  be  turned  far  enough  in  the  opposite  direction  to 
take  up  the  lost  motion. 

SETTING   BY    THE    LEAD-OPENING. 

Put  the  reverse-lever  in  the  full  forward  notch,  and 
place  the  engine  on  the  forward  center.  If  the  lead- 
opening  in  full  gear  is  to  be  TV  inch,  advance  the  for- 
ward eccentric  till  the  point  a  (Fig.  17)  on  the  valve- 


SETTING    THE    VALVES.  243 

stem  is  that  distance  away  from  the  tram-point.  Throw 
the  reverse-lever  into  the  full  backward  notch,  turn  the 
wheels  forward  enough  to  take  up  the  lost  motion, 
then  turn  them  back  to  the  forward  center.  Move 
the  backward  eccentric  (if  it  needs  moving)  till  the  tram, 
extended  on  the  valve-stem,  strikes  the  same  point 
that  it  reached  for  the  forward  motion.  It  will  be 
noted  here  that  the  valve  occupies  the  same  position 
for  fore  and  back  gear  when  the  engine  is  on  the 
center.  Put  the  reverse-lever  in  the  forward  notch 
again,  and  turn  the  wheels  ahead  till  the  back  center 
point  is  reached.  Now  tram  the  valve-stem  again, 
and,  if  tthe  lead-opening  be  the  same  for  both  gears  as 
it  was  on  the  forward  center,  that  part  of  the  setting 
is  right.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  go  over  the  points  a 
second  time  to  prove  their  correctness.  But  it  is  not 
likely  that  the  lead-opening  at  the  back  end  will  be 
right  on  the  first  trial.  Instead  of  having  the  correct 
lead,  the  valve  will  probably  lap  over  the  port,  being 
what  workmen  call  "  blind,"  or  it  will  have  too  much 
lead.  Let  us  assume  that  our  valve  is  T^  inch  blind. 
This  indicates  that  the  eccentric-rod  is  too  long.  We 
shorten  the  rod  till  the  valve  is  at  the  opening-point, 
and,  on  turning  the  engine  to  the  forward  center  again, 
we  will  find  that  the  valve  there  has  lost  its  lead.  But 
our  change  has  adjusted  the  valve  movement,  so  that 
on  each  center  the  valve  is  just  beginning  to  open  the 
steam-port.  Advancing  the  eccentric  to  give  one  end 
Y1^  inch  lead  will  now  have  the  same  effect  upon  the 
other  end;  and,  assuming  that  the  back  motion  has 
been  subjected  to  similar  treatment  with  a  like  result, 


244  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

the  lead-opening  on  that  side  is  right.     This  process 
must  now  be  repeated  with  the  other  side  of  the  engine. 

ASCERTAINING   THE    POINT    OF   CUT-OFF. 

The  lead  openings  being  properly  arranged,  we  will 
proceed  to  examine  how  the  valves  cut  off  the  steam ; 
for  it  is  important  that  about  the  same  supply  of 
steam  should  be  furnished  to  each  cylinder  and  to 
each  end  of  the  cylinders.  The  angularity  of  the  con- 
necting-rod tends  to  give  a  greater  supply  of  steam  to 
the  forward  than  to  the  back  end  of  the  cylinder;  but 
this  inequality  is,  as  has  already  been  explained, 
usually  rectified  by  locating  the  hanger-stud  a  certain 
distance  back  of  the  link  arc. 

To  prove  the  cut-off,  we  will  try  the  full  gear  first. 
Put  the  reverse-lever  in  the  full  forward  notch,  start- 
ing from  the  forward  center,  and  turn  the  wheels 
ahead.  The  motion  of  our  engine  has  been  designed 
so  that  the  cut-off  in  full  gear  shall  happen  at  18 
inches  of  the  stroke.  With  tram  in  hand,  watch  the 
movement  of  the  valve  as  indicated  by  the  stem  marks. 
As  the  piston  moves  away  from  the  forward  end  of 
the  cylinder,  the  valve  will  keep,  opening  till  nearly 
half  stroke  is  reached,  when  it  will  begin  to  return, 
slowly  at  first,  but  with  increasing  velocity  as  the 
point  of  cut-off  is  reached.  When  the  point  a,  Fig. 
17,  gets  so  that  it  will  be  reached  by  the  tram  ex- 
tended from  £,  the  motion  must  be  stopped ;  as  that 
indicates  the  point  of  cut-off.  Now  measure  on  the 
guide  how  far  the  cross-head  has  traveled  from  the 
beginning  of  the  stroke,  and  mark  it  down  with  chalk. 


SETTING    THE    VALVES.  245 

Then  turn  the  wheels  in  the  same  direction  past  the 
back  center,  and  obtain  the  cut-off  for  the  forward 
stroke  in  the  same  manner.  The  cut-off  for  the  other 
cylinder  will  be  found  in  precisely  the  method  de- 
scribed. 

In  addition  to  trying  the  cut-off  in  full  gear,  it  is 
usually  tested  at  half  stroke  and  at  6  inches,  or  with 
the  reverse-lever  in  the  notches  nearest  to  these  points. 
Some  men  begin  at  the  first  notch,  and  follow  the 
point  of  cut-off  in  every  notch  till  the  .center  is  reached, 
and  do  the  same  for  back  gear. 

ADJUSTMENT    OF    CUT-OFF. 

From  various  causes,  it  often  happens  that  the  cut- 
off is  unequal  in  the  two  strokes,  or  one  cylinder  may 
be  getting  more  steam  than  the  other.  Suppose,  that, 
on  one  side  of  the  engine,  the  valve  is  cutting  off  at 
i8J  inches  in  forward  gear,  while  at  the  other  side  it 
is  cutting  off  at  17^  inches  of  the  stroke.  The  most 
ready  way  to  adjust  that  inequality  is  by  shortening 
one  link-hanger  and  lengthening  the  other  till  a  mean 
is  struck.  Where  the  discrepancy  is  smaller,  it  is  ad- 
justed by  lengthening  the  hanger  at  the  short  side. 

A  harder  inequality  to  adjust  is  where  the  valve 
cuts  off  earlier  for  one  end  of  the  cylinder  than  for  the 
other.  In  new  work  this  is  readily  overcome  by  the 
saddle-stud,  but  such  a  change  is  seldom  admissible 
in  old  work.  When  the  points  of  cut-off  have  been 
noted  down,  it  will  frequently  happen,  that,  instead 
of  both  ends  cutting  off  at  18  inches,  one  end  will  show 
the  cut  at  17  inches,  while  the  other  goes  to  19  inches. 


246  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

This  indicates  something  wrong,  and  demands  a  search 
for  the  origin  of  the  unequal  motion.  First  ascertain 
if  the  rocker-arm  is  not  sprung.  If  that  is  all  right, 
examine  the  link,  which  is  probably  sprung  out  of  its 
true  radius.  To  straighten  the  rocker-arm  is  an  easy 
matter,  but  not  so  with  case-hardened  links ;  although 
some  men  are  very  successful  in  springing  them  back. 
Where  it  is  impracticable  to  remedy  an  unequal  cut-off 
by  correcting  the  origin  of  the  defect,  several  plans 
may  be  resorted  to  for  obtaining  the  required  adjust- 
ment. One  of  the  most  common  resorts  is  to  equalize 
the  forward  motion  by  throwing  out  the  back  motion. 
Putting  the  rocker-arm  away  from  its  vertical  position 
when  the  valve  is  in  the  middle  of  the  seat,  by  short- 
ening or  lengthening  the  valve-rod,  provides  a  means 
of  adjustment.  Sometimes  the  equality  of  lead  open- 
ing is  sacrificed  to  obtain  equality  of  cut-off.  The 
changes  necessary  to  obtain  adjustment  of  a  distorted 
motion  can  only  be  successfully  arranged  by  one  who 
has  experience  in  valve-setting  or  in  valve-motion  de- 
signing. 

In  many  shops  the  cut-off  is  adjusted  for  the  point 
where  the  engine  does  most  of  the  work, — say  at  from 
J  to  \  of  stroke.  Other  master  mechanics  direct  the 
equalization  to  be  made  for  half  stroke,  while  some 
take  the  mean  between  the  half  stroke  and  the  ordi- 
nary working  notch. 

The  final  adjustments  in  valve-setting  ought  to  be 
made  when  the  engine  is  hot. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
THE  WALSCHAERT   VALVE   GEAR. 

INVENTING  RADIAL  MOTIONS. 

DURING  the  first  two  decades  of  general  railway  operat- 
ing, from  1830  to  1850,  one  of  the  most  important  prob- 
lems worked  on  by  locomotive  engineers  was  striving  to 
produce  a  reversing  and  valve  actuating  mechanism 
that  would  distribute  the  steam  evenly  and  give  fair 
durabliity  in  service.  Many  wonderful  contrivances 
were  produced  that  received  application  through  influen- 
tial friends  and  were  kept  in  operation  long  enough  to 
show  dreadful  examples  concerning  the  evils  of  com- 
plicated valve  gear. 

MELLING'S  RADIAL  MOTION. 

When  the  agitation  devoted  to  improving  valve  mech- 
anism was  almost  in  its  infancy,  the  first  of  what  after- 
wards became  known  as  "radial"  motions  first  appeared. 
About  1832  a  Mr.  Melling  connected  with  the  Liverpool 
and  Manchester  Railway  devised  the  motion  shown  in 
Fig.  19.  The  principle  most  claimed  for  this  species  of 
valve  motion  was,  that  the  use  of  eccentrics  was  dispensed 

247 


248 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 


with.  The  inventor  secured  a  pin  on  the  middle  of 
the  connecting-rod,  which,  by  the  nature  of  connecting- 
rod  motion,  describes  a  species  of  elliptic  curve,  since 


Ky.  £  Loco.  Eny* 


FIG.  19. 

become  familiar  to  engineers  through  the  action  of  Joy's 
motion,  developed  years  afterwards.  The  pin  worked 
in  a  slotted  lever,  of  which  the  axis  was  placed  in  the 
centre  of  the  ellipse. 

The  motion  did  not  become  popular,  probably  on 
account  .of  its  novelty,  although  it  appeared  to  be  a 
decided  improvement  over  the  labyrinth  of  rods,  levers, 
pins,  slots,  and  hooks  used  as  valve  motion  by  many 
early  locomotive  builders. 

HAWTHORNE'S  RADIAL  MOTION. 
Five  years  after  Melling's  Motion  was  first  introduced 


FIG.  20. 


the   Hawthornes,  a  noted   firm  of  locomotive  buildirs, 
introduced  the  radial  gear,  shown  in. Fig.   20.     It  was 


THE   WALSCHAERT   VALVE  GEAR.  249 

a  decidedly  complex  gear,  its  only  small  merit  being 
that  no  eccentrics  were  necessary.  This  gear,  like  Melling's, 
was  actuated  by  a  pin  on  the  connecting-rod  which 
worked  in  a  long  slotted  link  that  transmitted  only  the 
vertical  motion  of  the  pin  to  the  valve-levers.  The  lap 
and  lead  were  obtained  by  adjustment  of  the  slotted 
link. 

The  motion  was  applied  to  engines  for  several  years, 
but  never  attained  popularity. 

A  variety  of  radial  valve-motions  gradually  worked 
their  way  into  favor  on  continental  European  railways, 
but  American  railway  master  mechanics  displayed  no 
tendency  to  depart  from  the  well-tried  eccentric,  although 
improving  valve-motion  was  a  hobby  with  many  of 
them.  The  first  radial  motion  used  in  the  United  States 
was  on  some  locomotives  built  by  the  Niles  Locomotive 
Works  of  Cincinnati,  for  the  Beaver  Meadow  Railroad. 
The  motion,  practically  Walschaert' s,  was  designed  by 
John  L.  Whetstone,  superintendent  of  the  works. 

THE  WALSCHAERT  VALVE  GEAR. 

The  Walschaert  valve  gear  was  invented  by  Egide 
Walschaert,  a  Belgian  engineer,  in  1844.  It  was  applied 
to  a  few  locomotives  shortly  after  being  invented,  but 
grew  into  popularity  very  slowly.  About  1860  this  gear 
began  to  find  patronage  among  the  locomotive  engineers 
of  Continental  Europe,  and  it  gradually  pushed  the  link 
motion  to  the  background. 


25° 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 


MASON'S  WALSCHAERT  GEAR. 

The  first  American  locomotive  builder  to  appreciate 
the  merit  of  the  Walschaert  motion  was  William  Mason, 
who,  in  1875,  applied  it  to  a  locomotive  which  was  ex- 
hibited the  following  year  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition. 
The  motion  was  afterwards  applied  to  many  narrow 
gauge  locomotives  in  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  21. 

The  main  link  N  was  worked  from  a  crank  in  the  main 
crank-pin,  which  was  several  inches  outside  of  the  center 


FIG.  21. 

line  of  the  valve-seats  inside  of  the  center  of  the  cylinders, 
lever  PO  worked  from  the  cross-head,  and  to  which 
the  radius  arm  NP  was  coupled,  was  connected  to  the 
block  Q,  which  was  bolted  to  the  guide-bar  RS.  The 
lever  PO  was  connected  to  the  outside  of  the  block  Q, 
which  was  fastened  to  the  guide-bar,  and  the  valve-stem 
T  was  attached  to  it  on  the  inside.  By  this  means  the 
motion  of  the  lever  PO  was  transferred  to  the  centre 
of  the  valve-stem  and  valve-seat,  which  was  3^  inches 
inside  of  the  center  of  the  cylinder. 

As  the  point  of  suspension  of  the  radius  arm  NP  has 


THE  WALSCHAERT   VALVE   GEAR.  251 

a  great  influence  on  the  motion  of  the  valve,  the  upper 
end  of  the  link  UV,  to  which  the  radius  arm  was  hung, 
was  attached  to  a  block  which  worked  in  the  slot  of  a 
stationary  link  or  guide  W.  By  that  means  the  point 
of  suspension  U  conformed  to  the  curve  of  the  slot, 
producing  nearly  uniform  distribution  of  steam  at  both 
ends  of  the  cylinder. 

In  introducing  the  Walschaert  valve  gear  William 
Mason  was  in  advance  of  current  progress.  The  motion 
was  decidedly  unpopular  among  railroad  men,  principally 
because  it  was  not  understood. 

Time  brought  revenge  for  the  neglect  heaped  upon 
the  Walschaert  valve  gear  when  it  was  first  urged  upon 
American  railroad  master  mechanics.  During  the  year 
1904  several  railroad  companies  consented  to  use  the 
Walschaert  motion  on  heavy  multi-coupled  locomotives, 
because  being  located  outside  of  the  running  gear,  it 
was  much  more  convenient  to  reach  than  link  motion 
placed  between  the  wheels.  Those  who  used  the  motion 
were  highly  satisfied  with  its  performance.  The  motion 
is  considerably  lighter  than  the  link  with  its  connections, 
and  its  use  enables  the  frames  to  be  braced  more  securely 
than  what  is  possible  with  motion  located  inside  the 
wheels.  These  advantages  have  made  the  Walschaert 
valve  gear  highly  popular,  and  it  is  coming  rapidly  into 
use. 

MODERN  WALSCHAERT  VALVE  GEAR. 

The  following  particulars  about  the  Walschaert  valve 
gear,  abridged  from  a  paper  contributed  by  Mr.  C.  J. 
Mellen  to  the  American  Railway  Master  Mechanics 


252  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

Association,  will  make  the  action  of  the  motion  clear 
to  all  intelligent  readers: 

The  motion  of  the  valve  is  derived  from  two  sources, 
namely,  the  main  crank  by  connection  to  the  cross-head 
and  from  an  eccentric  placed  approximately  at  right 
angles  to  the  main  crank.  The  cross-head  connection 
imparts  the  motion  of  the  lap  and  lead  at  the  extremities 
of  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  at  which  moment  the  link 
is  in  its  central  position.  Therefore  in  the  mid-gear 
with  the  reverse  lever  in  its  center  notch  this  will  be  all 
the  motion  imparted  to  the  valve  and  the  radius  bar 
becomes  stationary.  The  link  is  curved  to  a  radius  equal 
to  the  length  of  the  radius  bar.  By  moving  the  reverse 
lever  forward  the  eccentric  motion  is  brought  into  com- 
bination with  the  motion  from  the  cross-head,  producing 
a  valve  opening  for  the  forward  motion  of  the  engine,  and 
by  moving  the  reverse  lever  backward  the  link  block  is 
brought  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  link  fulcrum,  resulting 
in  a  valve  opening  governing  the  backward  motion  of 
the  engine.  The  action  of  this  one  eccentric  is  therefore 
the  same  as  if  it  was  two  eccentrics,  one  for  forward  and 
one  for  backward  motion,  placed  diametrically  opposite 
each  other,  and  the  angle  of  advance  is  taken  care  of 
by  the  main  crank  in  the  cross-head  connection.  The 
latter  motion  being  constant,  it  follows  that  the  lead 
remains  constant  at  all  points  of  cut-off. 

The  proportions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  Walschaert 
gear  cannot  be  determined  experimentally,  nor  should 
any  change  in  setting  the  valves  be  made  unless  the  effect 
of  the  change  is  known  in  advance.  It  is  therefore 
important  that  the  different  parts  should  be  made  and 


THE   WALSCHAERT    VALVE   GEAR. 


253 


set  correctly  from  the  beginning  and  there  will  then  be 
no  need  for  changes  when  the  original  dimensions  are 
maintained.  The  difference  in  this  gear  for  outside  and 
inside  admission-valves  must  be  considered  in  setting 


FIG.  22. 

the  eccentric  crank,  and  as  the  forward  motion  of  the 
engine  should  preferably  be  taken  from  the  lower  end 
of  the  link  when  the  eccentric  crank  will  follow  the  main 


FIG.  22a. 


crank  for  inside  admission-valve,  Figs.  22  and  220,  and 
lead  the  main  crank  for  outside  admission-valve,  Fig.  23, 
The  connecting  point  of  the  radius  bar  to  the  combination 


254 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 


lever  is  above  that  of  the  valve-stem  connection  for  inside 
admission  and  below  the  valve-stem  connection  for  out- 
side admission-valves,  Figs.  22,  22^,  and  23.  The  de- 
sired maximum  cut-off,  lead,  and  valve  travel  determines 
the  size  of  the  lap,  and  thereby  the  lap  and  lead  motion 
obtained  by  the  corresponding  proportioning  of  the 
combination  lever,  and  is  found  from  the  following 
formula: 
R:C=L:V. 

R  =  radius  of  the  main  crank. 

C=lap  and  lead  (one  side). 

L= distance  between  radius  bar  and  cross-head  con- 
nection, from  F  to  M,  Fig.  220,  on  the  combina- 
tion lever. 

V  =  distance  between  the  radius  bar  and  valve-stem 
connections. 

The  length  of  the  combination  lever  must  be  taken  to 
suit   the   conditions  under   consideration   in   each   case, 


FIG.  23. 

so  that  the  angle  through  which  it  oscillates  will  not 
exceed  60°,  but  less  is  preferable.  The  required  hori- 
zontal movement  or  travel  of  the  connecting  point  F  of 


THE   WALSCHEART   VALVE  GEAR.  255 

the  radius  bar  to  the  combination  lever  for  a  given 
maximum  valve  travel  must  now  be  ascertained  and  is 
found  by  the  following  formula,  in  which  R  and  C  are 
the  same  as  above,  namely: 

R= radius  of  main  crank. 
C=lap  and  lead. 

a = half  of  the  travel  of  the  valve. 
&=half  of  the  travel  of  point  F. 


RVa2-C~2 
R  +  C 


for  outside  admission,  and 


R\/g2-C2 

R-C 


for  inside  admission-valve. 


These  may  also  be  laid  out  graphically  as  per  Fig.  2/5 
for  outside,  and  Fig.  25  for  inside  admission- valves,  by 


FIG.  24. 

drawing  a  circle  with  S  as  a  center  and  a  radius  (shown 
dotted  in  the  figure).  Lay  out  crank  radius  R  to  the  left 
from  S=Sd  and  the  lap  and  lead  dimension  C=se  on 
same  side  of  S  for  inside  admission,  Fig.  25,  and  on 
opposite  side  of  S  for  outside  admission,  Fig.  24.  Draw 
ef  and  Sh  perpendicular  to  Sd,  when  /  becomes  the  inter- 


256  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

seating  point  between  the  valve  travel  circle  and  the 
line  ef.  Draw  the  line  df  where  this  intersects  the 
line  Sh,  which  point  we  will  call  h,  found  by  extending 
df  in  Fig.  25;  Sh  is  then  the  desired  dimension,  b  in  the 
formula,  or  one-half  the  required  movement  of  point  F, 
the  total  of  which  is  represented  by  the  full  drawn  circle 
in  the  figures. 

This  is  a  most  important  function  of  the  gear  upon 
which  practically  all  the  others  depend,  and,  is  rather 
complicated  to  find  by  plotting.  With  a  correct  suspen- 
sion of  the  link  block  it  will  have  the  same  horizontal 
movement  as  the  point  F,  and  by  limiting  the  angle  of 
the  swing  of  the  link  to  45°  as  a  maximum,  we  get  the 
rise  or  depression  of  the  link  block  on  either  side  of  the 

link  fulcrum  the  distance  Og=- — -%,   Fig.   220,  where 

t&n  cL 

O  is  the  link  fulcrum,  d= one-half  of  the  swing  of  the 
link  in  degrees,  and  &=half  the  travel  of  point  F  in  the 
previous  formula. 

The  vertical  location  of  the  link  fulcrum  O  should  be, 
when  practicable,  on  a  line  drawn  through  point  F 
parallel  with  the  valve-stem,  and  the  eccentric-rod  con- 
necting pin  K  to  the  link  should  be  as  nearly  as  practicable 
on  the  same  level  as  the  main  axle  in  order  to  minimize 
the  effect  of  the  vertical  play  of  the  axle  on  the  valve 
events,  but  on  large  engines  it  may  be  found  necessary 
to  lower  fulcrum  O  and  raise  connection  K  to  avoid  ex- 
cessive throw  of  the  eccentric  crank. 

In  locating  the  longitudinal  position  of  the  link  fulcrum, 
consideration  must  be  given  to  the  lengths  of  the  eccentric 
and  radius  bars,  so  that  both  may  be  of  approximately 


THE   WALSHAERT   VALVE   GEAR. 


257 


the  same  length.  When  these  lengths  fall  below  three 
and  one-half  times  the  total  vertical  sweep  of  the  link 
block,  the  radius  bar  should  be  favored  in  preference 
to  the  eccentric  rod.  The  exact  position  of  the  eccentric 
crank  must  be  plotted  as  well  as  the  longitudinal  location 


FIG.  25. 

of  point  K.  The  former  must  bear  such  relation  to  the 
main  crank  that  it  brings  the  link  in  its  middle  position 
when  the  main  crank  is  on  either  of  its  dead  centers 
and  the  connecting  point  K  must  be  so  located  that  it 
swings  the  link  in  the  required  angle  d  on  either  side  of 
the  middle  position  of  the  link;  that  is,  in  other  words, 
the  point  K  should  be  so  located  on  the  curve  it  must 
follow  with  fulcrum  O  as  a  center  that  its  deviation  from 
the  tangent  of  the  eccentric-rod  to  this  curve  is  such  that 
it  as  near  as  practicable  compensates  for  the  irregularities 
brought  about  by  the  angularities  of  the  main  and  eccen- 
tric rods  which  in  ordinary  cases  brings  it  from  2  inches 
to  5  inches  in  the  rear  of  the  tangent  to  the  link  drawn 
through  the  fulcrum  O. 

The  locus  of  the  suspension  point  of  the  radius  bar 
lifting  link  must  also  be  plotted  so  that  the  link  block 


258  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

is  at  the  same  point  of  the  link  in  its  extreme  positions  at 
all  cut-offs.  This  locus  is  a  curve  with  its  center  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  point  F  when  in  its  mid-gear  position. 
It  would  be  impracticable,  however,  to  have  a  lift  arm 
of  this  length,  and  a  curve  of  smaller  radius  must  be  sub- 
stituted and  so  applied  that  it  interescts  with  the  former 
curve  at  points  giving  the  least  possible  distortion  to  the 
motion  favoring  the  position  of  the  link  block  in  which  it 
is  mostly  used  in  service. 

The  sliding-lifter,  shown  in  Fig.  22,  meets  these  con- 
ditions better  than  any  other  method  of  suspension, 
but,  due  to  wheel  arrangements  of  various  designs  of 
engines,  this  is  not  always  applicable,  but  must  be  sub- 
stituted by  swinging  lifters,  as  per  Figs.  220  and  23, 
which,  when  properly  plotted,  give  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses equally  good  results. 

The  vertical  height  of  lower  connection  m  of  the  com- 
bination lever  in  relation  to  the  cross-head  connection 
has  a  slight  influence  on  the  port  opening  and  should, 
therefore,  in  the  center  position  of  the  lever,  be  about  in  the 
same  level  as  the  cross-head  connecting  point  n,  Fig.  23. 

GENERAL  NOTES  FOR  ADJUSTING  WALSCHAERT  GEAR. 

1.  Ascertain  by  the  following  method  the  position  of 
the  eccentric  crank:    Mark  the  position  of  tke  link  rela- 
tive to  its-  middle  position  on  both  of  the  dead  centers 
of  the  main  crank.     If  the  position  of  the  link  is  the 
same  in  both  cases  the  eccentric  crank  position  is  correct-, 
if  not,  the  eccentric  crank  should  be  shifted  until  this 
occurs,  or  as  near  so  as  possible. 

2.  After   the   eccentric   crank  has  been   correctly   set 
the  eccentric -rod  should  be  lengthened  or  shortened  as 


THE    WALSCHAERT    VALVE   GEAR.  259 

may  be  required,  to  bring  the  link  in  its  middle  position, 
so  that  the  link  block  can  be  moved  from  its  extreme 
forward  to  its  extreme  backward  position  without  impart- 
ing any  motion  to  the  valve.  It  may  be  noted  that  the 
link  position  may  be  observed  by  the  usual  tram-marks 
on  the  valve-stem,  or  direct  by  marks  on  the  link-pin, 
as  may  be  found  most  convenient,  with  the  link  blocks 
in  full  gear,  preferably  ahead. 

3.  The   difference  between   the   two   positions  of  the 
valve  on  the  forward  and  backward  centers  of  the  engine 
is  the  lap  and  lead  doubled;  it  is  the  same  in  any  position 
of  the  link  block,  and  cannot  be  changed  by  changing 
the  leverage  relations  of  the  combination  lever. 

4.  The  tram-marks  of  the  opening  moments  at  both 
ends  of  the  valve  should  be  marked  on  the  valve-stem, 
and  the  latter  lengthened  or  shortened  until  equal  leads 
at  both  ends  are  obtained. 

5.  With  certain  limits  this  lengthening  or  shortening 
may  be  made  on  the  radius  bar,  if  it  should  prove  more 
convenient,  but  it  is  desirable  that  its  length  should  be 
so  nearly  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  link  that  no  apparent 
change  in  the  lead  should  occur  in  moving  the  link  block, 
as  stated  in  note  No.  2. 

6.  The  lead  may  be  increased  by  reducing  the  lap, 
and  the  cut-off  points  will  then  be  slightly  advanced. 
Increasing  the  lap  produces  the  opposite  effect  on  the 
cut-off  and  reduces  the  lead  the  same  amount.     With 
good  judgment  these  quantities  may  be  varied  to  offset 
the   irregularities   inherent   in   transforming   rotary   into 
lineal  motions. 

7.  The  valve  events  are  to  a  great  extent  dependent  on 
the  location  of  the  suspension  point  of  lifter  of  the  rear 


26o  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

end  of  the  radius  bar,  when  swinging  lifter  is  used,  which 
requires  that  this  point  should  be  properly  laid  out  by 
careful  plotting,  or,  if  convenient,  it  is  preferably  deter- 
mined by  a  model,  as  irregularities  due  to  incorrect  locus 
of  this  point  cannot  be  corrected  by  the  other  parts  of 
the  gear  without  more  or  less  distortion  of  same.  When 
this  point  is  so  fixed  that  a  change  of  same  is  impracticable, 
it  may  be  better,  however,  to  modify  other  elements, 
if  thereby  the  motion  in  general  can  be  improved. 

VALVE   SETTING. 

The  Walschaert  valve  gear  is  so  designed  in  the  drawing 
office  that  very  little  valve  setting  or  adjustment  is  neces- 
sary, but  some  minor  changes  have  generally  to  be  made 
on  the  new  parts.  This  is  done  principally  by  the  return 
crank  and  the  valve-stem.  When  the  engine  is  erected, 
the  return  crank  is  not  permanently  secured  to  the  pin, 
but  is  left  ready  for  adjustment.  The  valve-stem  can 
be  lengthened  or  shortened  by  means  of  a  nut  that  acts 
like  a  turn-buckle.  When  the  exact  length  of  the  valve- 
stem  is  determined,  a  hole  is  drilled  through  the  adjusting- 
nut,  and  the  valve-stem,  and  a  pin  driven  through,  which 
makes  that  adjustment  permanent.  When  the  proper 
setting  of  the  valve  has  been  ascertained  by  trials,  the 
return  crank  is  marked  for  the  key-seat  which  is  after- 
wards cut.  In  adjusting  the  valves  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  lengthen  or  shorten  the  rod  connecting  the 
return  crank  with  the  link. 

When  a  Walschaert  valve  motion  becomes  distorted 
through  wear,  the  only  remedy  is  renewing  the  bushings. 
No  other  changes  ought  to  be  attempted. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 
TRACTIVE   POWER  AND  TRAIN   RESISTANCE. 

HOW   TO    CALCULATE    THE  POWER  OF   LOCOMOTIVES. 

THE  practice  of  tonnage-rating,  which  has  been 
steadily  growing  in  favor  for  the  last  few  years,  has 
set  many  officials,  outside  of  the  mechanical  depart- 
ments, to  figuring  upon  the  power  of  locomotives,  and 
on  the  trains  all  kinds  of  engines  ought  to  haul  over 
certain  divisions.  To  meet  this  demand  I  have  deter- 
mined to  write  particulars  by  which  any  man,  know- 
ing the  first  four  rules  of  arithmetic,  can  figure  out  for 
himself  the  tonnage  that  any  locomotive  can  haul  on 
any  grade  or  curve.  The  information  to  be  given  is 
found  in  other  engineering-books,  but  many  railroad- 
men do  not  know  where  to  look  for  the  technical  data 
they  need. 

HORSE-POWER    OF    STEAM-ENGINES. 

The  power  capacity  of  steam-engines  is  generally 
expressed  in  horse-power,  which  is  a  measurable 
quantity  and  is  based  on  the  arbitrary  measure  of  one 
horse-power  being  equal  to  the  effort  of  raising  33,000 
pounds  one  foot  per  minute.  That  is  the  unit  used 

261 


262  LOCOMO7^IVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

for  measuring  the  power  transmitted  by  nearly  all 
kinds  of  prime  motors  and  machines.  It  is  sometimes 
applied  to  locomotives,  but  for  a  variety  of  reasons 
the  horse-power  capacity  of  a  locomotive  does  not 
convey  to  the  ordinary  railroad  mind  its  capacity  for 
hauling  different  kinds  of  trains.  The  utility  of  a 
locomotive  for  train-pulling  has  to  be  expressed  in  a 
different  way. 

HOW    PRACTICAL    RAILROADMEN    ESTIMATE    POWER 
OF   LOCOMOTIVES. 

When  practical  railroadmen  know  the  size  of  cylin- 
ders, the  diameter  of  driving-wheels,  the  weight  rest- 
ing upon  them,  and  the  boiler  dimensions,  they 
understand  what  kind  of  service  the  engine  is  adapted 
for,  and  in  a  general  way  what  weight  of  train  it  will 
haul.  A  general  idea  of  power  is,  however,  a  guess 
which  may  be  considerably  away  from  the  truth. 
Guessing  is  not  a  good  basis  for  designing  or  estimat- 
ing the  power  of  a  locomotive,  and  so  methods  have 
been  devised  for  figuring  out  the  power  and  speed 
that  certain  dimensions  will  develop  which  are  as  cor- 
rect and  reliable  as  any  other  engineering  rules.  It 
has  become  customary  to  reckon  the  power  of  a  loco- 
motive by  the  tractive  force  the  driving-wheels  will 
exert  upon  the  rail — that  is,  the  resisting  weight 
which  the  engine  will  start  from  a  state  of  rest. 

ADHESION   AND    TRACTIVE    POWER. 

The  tractive  force  is  the  power  which  the  pistons  of 
a  locomotive  are  capable  of  exerting  through  the  driv- 


TRACTIVE   POWER   AND    TRAIN  RESISTANCE.    263 

ing-wheels  to  move  engine  and  train.  The  efficiency 
of  the  engine's  tractive  power  is  dependent  upon  the 
adhesion  of  the  wheels  to  the  rails.  When  adhesion 
is  insufficient,  the  power  transmitted  through  the 
pistons  and  rods  will  slip  the  wheels,  and  no  useful 
effect  will  result.  To  prevent  the  slipping  of  locomo- 
tive driving-wheels,  it  is  necessary  to  put  resting  upon 
them  at  least  four  times  in  weight  the  force  available 
for  turning  them.  If  the  weight  is  five  or  six  times 
the  piston  power,  the  engine  will  do  its  work  with 
less  annoyance  from  slipping  than  would  be  the  case 
with  less  weight.  To  prevent  slipping  on  unwashed, 
greasy  rails,  more  than  double  the  adhesion  would 
be  necessary  for  that  required  on  dry,  clean  rails. 
This  cannot  often  be  done,  but  the  sand-box  provides 
the  means  for  obtaining  adhesion  when  the  rails  are 
in  bad  order. 

FIGURING    PARTICULARS    OF   TRACTIVE    POWER. 

Let  us  calculate  the  tractive  power  of  the  kind  of 
engine  most  commonly  used  for  hauling  heavy  passen- 
ger and  fast  freight  trains,  which  has  cylinders  19  X  26 
inches,  driving-wheels  69  inches  diameter,  with  a 
working  pressure  of  200  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 
The  method  by  which  the  traction  of  a  locomotive  is 
calculated  is  to  square  the  diameter  of  the  cylinders 
in  inches,  multiply  that  by  the  length  of  the  stroke  in 
inches,  and  divide  by  the  diameter  of  the  driving- 
wheels  in  inches.  The  product  of  that  sum  will  be 
the  power  exerted  by  the  engine  for  every  pound  of 
pressure  that  reaches  the  cylinders  from  the  boiler. 


264  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

A  rule  established  by  the  Railway  Master  Mechanics' 
Association  makes  out  that  85  per  cent  of  the  boiler- 
pressure  is  a  fair  average  of  what  pressure  will  be 
available  in  the  cylinders  at  slow  speed. 

Follow  that  rule  and  the  formula  whereby  we  have 
described  the  method  for  rinding  out  the  tractive 
power  of  this  particular  locomotive  would  be 


D  ' 
which  means 

d  =  diameter  in  inches  squared; 
L  =  the  length  of  stroke  in  inches; 
p  :=  the  mean  effective  pressure  on  piston; 
D  =  the  diameter  of  the  driving-wheels  in  inches; 
T  =  the    equivalent    tractive    force    at    the    rails    in 
pounds. 

To  apply  this  rule  in  practice,  we  find  that  </a 
means  multiply  19  by  itself,  or  square,  so  we  have  19 
X  19  =  361  X  26  (the  stroke  in  inches)  =  9386  X 
170  (mean  effective  pressure)  —  1,595,620  -f-  69  (the 
diameter  in  inches  of  driving-wheels)  <=  23,125.  This 
gives  23,125  pounds  as  the  power  exerted  at  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  wheels,  from  which  a  deduction  of 
about  10  per  cent  is  usually  made  for  internal  friction. 
We  have  assumed  the  boiler-pressure  to  be  200 
pounds  and  have  used  85  per  cent  of  it. 

The  formula  described  seems  at  first  sight  theoreti- 
cal, and  not  based  on  a  good  philosophical  foundation; 
but  it  is  merely  a  short  way,  and -agrees  in  results 


TRACTIVE  POWER   AND    TRAIN  RESISTANCE,    265 

with  more  detailed  methods  of  calculation.  It  agrees 
with  another  plan  which  is  more  in  favor  with  civil 
engineers.  That  is,  to  ascertain  the  foot-pounds  of 
work  the  engine  is  doing  during  each  revolution  of  the 
driving-wheels.  By  dividing  the  total  thus  found  by 
the  circumference  of  the  drivers  in  feet  the  force 
exerted  through  each  foot  which  the  engine  moves  is 
found. 

CIVIL  ENGINEERS'  METHOD  OF  CALCULATING 
TRACTIVE  POWER. 

Taking  the  same  engine  that  we  have  figured  on, 
with  pistons  19  inches  diameter,  the  area  of  one  pis- 
ton is  283.5294  square  inches.  This  is  multiplied  by 
the  mean  average  pressure  of  the  steam,  giving 
283.5294  X  170  =  48,199.9980,  which  gives  the  ag- 
gregate pressure  exerted  by  the  steam  on  one  piston. 
Multiplying  that  by  2  to  take  in  both  pistons,  we  have 
96,399.9960  X  4i  feet  (the  stroke  moved  in  a  full 
revolution  of  the  driving-wheels)  =  417.733.3160  'T- 
IS. 0642  (the  circumference  of  the  driving-wheels  in 
feet)  —  23,125  pounds  tractive  force,  the  same  as  by 
the  other  rule. 

There  are  several  other  methods  of  calculating 
locomotive  tractive  power,  but  they  need  not  be 
described,  as  they  bring  precisely  the  same  figures  as 
those  found. 

FINDING   THE    HORSE-POWER   OF   A    LOCOMOTIVE. 

When  people  wish  to  find  the  horse-power  developed 
by  a  locomotive  at  various  speeds,  the  steam-engine 


266  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE   RUNNING. 

indicator  is  usually  employed  to  show  the  mean  effec- 
tive pressure  inside  of  the  cylinders.  To  explain  the 
process  to  be  followed,  we  will  draw  on  our  own  ex- 
perience with  a  representative  locomotive  pulling  a 
fast  passenger  train. 

The  writer  took  indicator-diagrams  to  find  out  the 
amount  of  work  done  by  the  locomotive  in  taking  the 
Empire  State  Express  over  the  New  York  Central 
Railroad.  The  details  were  published  in  Locomotive 
Engineering,  June,  1892.  A  very  common  speed  was 
60  miles  an  hour.  The  engine  had  cylinders  19  X  24 
inches,  and  driving-wheels  78  inches  diameter.  The 
indicator-diagram  proved  that  the  average  cylinder- 
pressure  at  60  miles  an  hour  was  53.7  pounds  per 
square  inch.  The  horse-power  is  calculated  in  the 
following  manner: 

283.5294  square  inches  piston  area; 
53.7  pounds  M.E.  pressure; 

15,225.5  pressure  on  one  piston; 
2  pistons; 


30,451  pressure  transmitted  from  both  cylinders; 
4  feet  piston-travel  in  each  revolution; 


121,804 

260  revolutions  per  minute; 


31,669,040  -f-  33,000  =  959  horse-power. 

That  method  of  calculation,  of  course,  applies  to 
all  locomotives,  and  can  be  used  when  the  area  of 
piston,  revolutions  per  minute,  and  mean  effective 
cylinder-pressure  are  known. 


TRACTIVE   POWER  AND    TRAIN  RESISTANCE.   267 

In  the  case  record'ed  the  mean  effective  cylinder- 
pressure  was  little  more  than  33.5  per  cent  of  the 
boiler-pressure.  When  the  same  engine  was  running 
at  37.1  miles  an  hour,  making  160  revolutions  per 
minute,  the  M.E.P.  was  59.2  pounds,  and  37  was  the 
percentage  of  boiler-pressure.  At  20  revolutions  per 
minute  the  mean  effective  pressure  would  be  little 
short  of  the  85  per  cent  of  boiler-pressure  of  the 
master  mechanics'  rule,  but  it  would  gradually  de- 
crease as  the  piston  speed  increased. 

The  work  that  a  locomotive  has  to  do  in  pulling  a 
train  is  described  under  the  heading  of  Train  Resist- 
ances. 

TO    CALCULATE   THE    POWER   OF   COMPOUND 
LOCOMOTIVES. 

To  calculate  the  tractive  power  of  compound  loco- 
motives, it  is  necessary  first  to  know  what  the  mean 
effective  pressure  on  the  pistons  is  in  every  case,  and 
any  attempt  at  a  theoretical  exposition  of  the  methods 
for  arriving  at  this  information  by  calculation  is  very 
unsatisfactory  and  inaccurate,  for  this  reason:  In  the 
case  of  the  two-cylinder  compound  there  are  too 
many  unknown  quantities,  among  which  are  the  vol- 
ume of  receiver,  pressure  of  live  steam  through  reduc- 
ing-valve,  and  the  amount  of  back-pressure.  In  the 
case  of  the  four-cylinder  compound  there  is  no 
receiver,  but  the  element  of  back-pressure  is  present 
on  the  high-pressure  piston.  For  these  reasons  cal- 
culated pressures  are  not  reliable  for  finding  the  power 
of  this  type  of  engine.  The  indicator  furnishes  the 


268  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

means  to  arrive  at  the  correct  mean  effective  pressure, 
and  the  formula  for  a  two-cylinder  compound  when 
the  mean  effective  pressure  is  known  is 

d*  X  M.E.P.  X  s 


in  which  d*  =  diameter  of  low  pressure  squared, 
M.E.P.  =  mean  effective  pressure,  s  =  stroke  in 
inches,  and  D  =  diameter  of  driving-wheel.  In  the 
absence  of  indicator-cards  showing  cylinder-pressures 
for  a  given  boiler-pressure,  approximate  results  may 
be  had  by  taking  the  mean  effective  pressure  in  the 
high-pressure  cylinder  at  70  per  cent  of  boiler-pres- 
sure, which  for  200  pounds  boiler-pressure  would  be 
140  pounds.  If  the  reducing-  valve  gives  steam  to 
the  low-pressure  cylinder  so  as  to  equalize  the  work 
on  both  the  pistons,  the  low-pressure  cylinder  will 
have  a  mean  effective  pressure  of  about  60  pounds  for 
a  ratio  of  cylinder  of  2.3,  which  is  the  ratio  between 
23-  and  .35-inch  cylinders.  Referring  the  mean  effec- 
tive pressure  to  terms  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder, 
we  have 

140 
60  +  —  —  =60  +  61  =  121  pounds. 

Placing  the  values  in  the  formula,  the  tractive  power 
equals 

35'  X  121  X  32 


2X 


=  43,120  pounds. 


If  a  deduction  of  7  per  cent  for  internal   friction  is 
made,  the  net  tractive  power  is  about  40,000  pounds. 


TRACTIVE  POWER   AND    TRAIN  RESISTANCE.    269 

The  tractive  power  of  the  four-cylinder  compound  is 
also  found  by  taking  mean  effective  pressures  known 
to  have  been  found  in  service.  These  may  be  taken 
at  44  and  46  per  cent  of  the  boiler-pressure  for  the 
high-  and  low-pressure  cylinders,  respectively,  which 
for  200  pounds  gauge-pressure  equals  88  and  92 
pounds  mean  effective  pressure.  Taking,  for  an  ex- 
ample, an  engine  with  high-pressure  cylinders  18 
inches  diameter,  low-pressure  cylinders  30  inches 
diameter,  stroke  30  inches,  and  diameter  of  drivers  55 
inches,  the  ratio  of  cylinder  areas  is  2.77;  and  again 
referring  the  pressures  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder 

88 
we    have    92  -| =  123    pounds    mean    effective 

pressure  in  the  low-pressure  cylinders.  Placing  these 
values  in  the  formula,  which  in  this  case  is  somewhat 
different  from  the  other,  owing  to  the  fact  that  there 
are  now  two  cylinders  to  consider  instead  of  one,  we 
have 

30'  X   123  X  30 

—        -  =  60,300  pounds. 

Taking  out  7  per  cent  for  friction,  as  before,  the  tract- 
ive power  is  about  56,000  pounds.  For  their  four- 
cylinder  compounds  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works 
take  f  of  the  boiler-pressure  for  the  mean  effective 
pressure  in  the  high-pressure  cylinder,  and  J  for  the 
mean  effective  pressure  in  the  low-pressure  cylinder; 
for  two-cylinder  compounds  take  f  of  the  boiler-pres- 
sure for  the  mean  effective  pressure  for  the  high-pres- 
sure cylinder.  The  variation  between  high-  and 


2)0  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

low-pressure  cylinders  in  the  two-cylinder  type  will, 
of  course,  be  compensated  by  the  reduced  mean  effect- 
ive pressure  in  the  low-pressure  cylinder. 

RESISTANCES    OF   TRAINS. 

The  work  which  a  locomotive  performs  in  pulling  a 
train  is  expended  in  overcoming  the  resistance  due  to 
wheel-friction,  gradients,  curves,  and  atmospheric  or 
wind  pressure.  Ever  since  railroad  trains  began  to  be 
operated  engineers  have  been  striving  to  devise 
formulae  for  showing  the  train  resistance  at  various 
speeds.  From  what  we  have  found  out  in  investigat- 
ing this  subject  we  do  not  believe  that  it  is  possible 
to  devise  a  formula  that  will  show  an  approximation 
of  the  resistance  due  to  different  kinds  of  trains  at 
different  speeds  when  train-tons  are  the  basis  of  calcu- 
lation. 

The  character  and  the  load  of  the  cars  have  a 
decided  influence  upon  the  resistance  per  ton  of  the 
train.  Thus  records  made  on  the  Chicago,  Burlington 
&  Quincy  by  the  aid  of  the  dynamometer-car  and  in- 
dicator-diagrams taken  from  the  locomotive  showed 
that  with  a  train  of  loaded  freight  cars  weighing- 940 
tons,  running  at  a  speed  of  20  miles  an  hour,  the 
average  resistance  on  a  straight,  level  track  was  5^ 
pounds  to  the  ton.  A  train  of  empty  freight  cars 
weighing  340  tons  run  at  the  same  speed  showed  an 
average  resistance  of  about  12  pounds  to  the  ton. 

There  is  good  reason  for  believing  that  the  heavier 
the  cars  in  a  train  are  loaded  the  smaller  the  ton  re- 
sistance is,  just  as  was  cited  in  the  case  of  the  loaded 


TRACTIVE   POWER  AND    TRAIN  RESISTANCE.    271 

and  empty  cars.  A  particularly  heavy  train  of  freight 
cars,  weighing,  with  engine  and  tender,  3428  tons, 
pulled  over  the  New  York  Central,  to  test  the  power 
of  a  new  type  of  locomotive,  indicated  that  the  resist- 
ance at  20  miles  an  hour  was  about  4  pounds  per  ton. 

We  have  collected  a  great  mass  of  information  con- 
cerning the  resistance  of  trains,  and  careful  study  of 
the  facts  convinces  us  that  to  show  an  approximation 
of  the  resistance  of  different  kinds  of  trains  it  is 
necessary  to  treat  every  one  separately.  The  late 
A.  M.  Wellington,  of  the  Engineering  News,  devoted 
a  great  deal  of  study  to  the  subject  of  train  resistances, 
and  in  his  day  was  probably  the  best  living  authority 
thereon.  In  1892  the  author  took  steam-engine  in- 
dicator-diagrams from  an  engine  pulling  the  Empire 
State  Express,  and  in  publishing  them  made  some 
deductions  about  the  resistance  of  the  train.  Mr. 
Wellington  took  the  figures  presented  and  compared 
them  with  records  made  by  William  Stroudley  with 
express  trains  on  the  London,  Chatham  &  South 
Coast  Railway.  From  that  and  other  data  he  worked 
up  a  diagram  of  train  resistances  particulars  of  which 
will  be  given. 

While  investigating  the  power  of  locomotives  re- 
quired to  pull  certain  heavy  fast  express  trains  Mr. 
S.  A.  Vauclain,  of  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works, 
carried  on  a  series  of  independent  experiments,  and 
he  found  the  train  resistances  a  little  less  than  those 
formulated  by  Wellington;  but  he  expressed  the  belief 
that  Wellington's  figures  were  near  enough  for  all 
practical  purposes. 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 


From  the  facts  which  we  have  obtained  from 
dynamometer-car  records  and  other  sources  that  may 
be  relied  on  to  be  nearly  correct  we  have  worked  out 
the  two  lines  added  to  the  Wellington  and  Vauclain 
formulae  given  in  the  subjoined  table: 

RESISTANCE   PER   TON    OF   2OOO   POUNDS. 


Miles  per  Hour. 

IO 

20 

3° 

40 

5° 

60 

70 

Resistance  in  pounds  per  ton. 
Heavy  passenger  train  : 
^Vellington  .  • 

4C 

6 

9c 

12 

Id 

17 

IO 

Vauclain  

II 

I-l 

1C 

Loaded   freight  cars       

c  8 

92 

II    ^ 

1  2  .  ^ 

Kmpty  freight  cars        

6 

7    ^ 

1  i 

Id 

I  - 

These  figures  apply  to  trains  running  on  a  straight, 
level  track  on  a  calm  day. 

The  factors  of  train  resistance  due  to  grades  are 
exact.  If  the  steepness  of  the  grade  in  feet  is  multi- 
plied by  0.38,  the  quotient  will  be  the  resistance  in 
pounds  per  ton.  Suppose  the  grade  is  I  per  cent,  or 
52.8  feet  to  the  mile,  we  have  the  problem  52.8  X 
0.38  =  20,  the  number  of  pounds  per  ton  for  that 
grade.  If  the  train  with  engine  and  tender  weighs 
1000  tons,  20,000  pounds  of  tractive  power  will  be 
required  to  overcome  the  resistance  due  to  gravity. 

Curves  increase  the  train  resistance  of  trains  to  an 
extent  that  depends  very  much  upon  the  physical 
condition  of  the  curve  and  upon  the  length  of  train 
that  is  upon  it  in  getting  round  it.  The  allowance 
generally  made  for  the  resistance  of  curves  is  J  pound 
per  ton  for  each  degree  of  curvature. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

DRAFT   APPLIANCES. 

ORDINARY   ARRANGEMENTS    FOR   CREATING  DRAFT. 

THE  capacity  of  the  boiler  for  generating  steam 
with  great  rapidity  was  what  made  high-speed  loco- 
motives a  possibility.  The  filling  of  the  boiler  with 
small  flue-tubes  and  the  employing  of  a  strong  arti- 
ficial draft  were  the  principal  means  used  in  making 
the  locomotive  boiler  a  success.  Various  methods 
were  for  a  time  tried  in  maintaining  the  strong  draft 
necessary;  but  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the 
emission  of  the  exhaust-steam  through  the  smoke- 
stack is  the  most  efficient  and  simple  means  of  creat- 
ing the  pull  on  the  fire  necessary  to  generate  the  great 
volume  of  steam  used  by  the  cylinders  of  a  locomo- 
tive. 

The  ordinary  arrangement  of  draft  appliances  is  as 
simple  as  it  is  efficient.  Referring  to  the  illustration 
Fig.  40,  the  fuel  rests  on  the  grates  uu,  and  receives 
through  the  grate-openings  the  air  necessary  to  sustain 
and  stimulate  combustion.  The  gases  released  from 
the  burning  fuel  pass  up  into  the  body  of  the  fire-box 
y  thence  into  the  flue-tubes  xxx  to  the  smoke-box 

273 


274 


LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 


from  whence  they  pass  to  the  atmosphere  by  the 
smoke-stack  D.  In  traversing  this  route  the  fuel- 
gases  impart  the  greater  portion  of  their  heat  to  the 
water  surrounding  the  sheets  and  flues;  and  the  greater 
the  proportion  of  the  heat  imparted  to  the  water  the 
greater  is  the  efficiency  of  the  boiler.  There  is  a 


\ 

JJ*?»'?5>R«yR~*E«%S5SSSJ>»l*«OB<^jLili.l  I 


FIG.  40. 

remarkable  difference  in  the  faculty  of  boilers  for 
absorbing  the  heat  of  the  fire-gases,  and  not  a  little  of 
this  difference  is  due  to  the  design  and  arrangement 
of  the  draft  appliances. 

Locomotive  engineers  and  firemen  do  not  design  or 
make  the  draft  appliances  of  the  engines  they  operate ; 


DRAFT  APPLIANCES.  275 

but  they  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  adjustments  of 
the  same,  and  an  intelligent  study  of  the  action  of 
the  draft  appliances  may  often  save  them  from  much 
unnecessary  labor,  and  the  company  from  useless 
expense. 

ACTION    OF   THE    DRAFT-CREATING   FORCES. 

When  a  locomotive  is  at  work  the  steam  passes 
through  the  exhaust-pipe  a  through  the  nozzle  b,  and 
shoots  up  through  the  stack  like  a  projectile,  the 
velocity  depending  on  the  pressure  of  the  steam  re- 
leased, and  on  the  size  of  the  nozzle-opening  through 
which  it  has  to  pass.  The  greater  the  quantity  of 
steam  passing  through  the  cylinders,  the  greater, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  will  be  the  draft  in- 
duced. 

/ 

Draft  by  the  exhaust-steam  passing  from  the 
exhaust-pipe  through  the  smoke-stack  appears  to  be 
created  in  two  ways.  The  steam  acts  partly  on  the 
surrounding  air  or  gases  it  passes  through  to  induce  a 
current  by  friction  of  the  particles;  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  its  compact  volume  fills  the  smoke-stack  like  a 
piston,  inducing  draft  by  leaving  a  partial  vacuum 
behind  like  the  action  of  a  pump-plunger.  Whether 
the  current  be  induced  by  friction  or  by  the  piston- 
like  action,  the  air  in  the  smoke-box  is  rarefied,  and 
there  being  only  one  means  of  ingress  to  fill  the  par- 
tial void,  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  forces  air 
through  the  grates  into  the  fire  in  its  passage  to  the 
smoke-box  by  way  of  the  tubes. 

Inducing  a  current  by  friction  is  the  principle  the 


276  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE   RUNNING. 

steam-jet  works  on,  and  when  that  is  the  mode  of  the 
exhaust  action  in  maintaining  draft  the  nozzle  is 
merely  an  enlarged  jet-opening.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  when  the  exhaust-steam  acts  like  a  plunger  in  the 
smoke-stack  to  leave  a  partial  vacuum  behind,  a  more 
perfect  draft  can  be  maintained  with  the  same  steam 
velocity  than  where  the  draft  is  created  by  friction; 
yet  the  latter  practice  of  draft  induction  is  largely  fol- 
lowed in  American  locomotives.  In  ordinary  work- 
ing at  moderately  high  piston  speed  the  exhaust  acts 
in  both  ways.  At  low  speed  the  plunger  action  alone 
ought  to  provide  the  required  draft. 

DIFFERENT  WAYS    OF  PASSING   EXHAUST-STEAM    INTO 
THE    STACK. 

Under  whatever  conditions  a  locomotive  is  worked, 
the  intensity  of  draft  created  by  a  given  volume  or 
velocity  of  exhaust-steam  will  depend,  to  a  great 
extent,  upon  the  way  the  nozzle  or  nozzles  and  their 
connections  pass  the  steam  into  the  stack.  If  the 
steam  passes  centrally  into  the  stack  in  a  compact 
form,  and  expands  on  its  passage  just  enough  to  fill 
the  stack  at  its  base,  a  low  tension  of  exhaust-steam 
will  serve  to  leave  a  comparatively  high  vacuum 
behind,  which  will  instantly  be  filled  by  the  gases  that 
pass  through  the  flues.  This  perfect  action  of  the 
exhaust-steam  in  creating  draft  is  not  so  general  as  it 
ought  to  be. 

In  Fig.  41  the  escaping  steam  is  shown  expanding 
sufficiently  to  fill  the  stack  just  as  it  enters  the  base 
casting.  When  this  happens,  the  stack  acts  like  a 


DRAFT  APPLIANCES. 


277 


pump-barrel  delivering  a  full  charge  at  each  stroke. 
•In  such  a  case,  a  stackful  of 
gas  is  pumped  out  of  the 
smoke-box  with  every  ex- 
haust, and  the  vacuum 
necessary  for  making  steam 
will  be  maintained  with  a 
low  velocity  of  exhaust- 
steam,  which  means  that  a 


large     nozzle 
ployed. 

The  steam 
delivered    in 
that    it     does 


may    be    em- 


FIG.  41. 


is    sometimes 
such    a    form 
not     fill     the 

stack  till  it  is  half  way  up. 
The  exhaust-steam  in  this 
case  will  pump  only  about 
a  half  stackful  out  of  the  smoke-box  with  each  puff  of 
steam,  and  the  necessary  vacuum  will  be  maintained 
partly  by  the  pumping  action  and  partly  by  friction 
of  the  escaping  steam  on  the  gases.  A  higher  steam 
velocity  is  required  to  create  the  needed  draft  in  this 
case. 

Fig.  42  illustrates  a  defect  of  exhaust  action  very 
common  where  double  nozzles  are  used,  Its  effect  is 
similar  to  that  mentioned  in  the  last  paragraph;  but 
in  some  cases  it  is  much  worse,  for  the  exhaust-steam 
hugs  the  side  of  the  stack  the  whole  way  up,  and  by 
that  means  loses  a  portion  of  its  draft-creating  power. 
This  same  effect  sometimes  comes  from  a  single  nozzle 
being  set  out  of  plumb. 


278 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 


Fig.  43  illustrates  another  pernicious  form  of  bad 
adjustment.  In  this  case  the  steam  strikes  wide  at 
the  base  of  the  stack,  and  delivers  some  of  its  volume 


FIG.  42.  FIG.  43. 

into  the  smoke-box,  which  impairs  the  efficiency  of 
the  pumping  action. 

Although  in  these  illustrations  I  have  used  only  the 
open  stack,  the  defects  pointed  out  apply  equally  well 
to  engines  having  low  nozzles,  petticoat-pipes,  and 
diamond  stacks. 

EXHAUST-PIPES   AND    NOZZLES. 

The  first  function  of  an  exhaust-pipe  is  to  convey 
the  used  steam  from  the  cylinders.  The  form  that 
will  carry  off  the  steam  so  that  .the  least  possible 


DRAFT  APPLIANCES.  279 

degree  of  back-pressure  is  left  to  obstruct  the  piston 
is  the  best  for  locomotives.  The  best  form  that  can 
be  used  will  cause  considerable  back-pressure  at  high 
piston  speeds.  When  the  exhaust-pipe  is  designed  to 
open  at  the  bottom  of  the  smoke-box,  it  is  necessary 
to  use  double  nozzles,  to  prevent  the  presence  of 
severe  back-pressure  in  the  cylinders  caused  by  the 
steam  passing  through  the  exhaust-pipes  from  one 
cylinder  into  the  other.  The  two  pipes  come  together 
below  in  such  a  shape  that  this  cannot  be  prevented. 

When  double  nozzles  are  used  with  a  high  exhaust- 
pipe,  the  greatest  possible  care  should  be  taken  to 
adjust  the  nozzles  to  deliver  the  steam  as  nearly  cen- 
tral in  the  stack  as  possible.  When  an  engine  having 
this  arrangement  is  not  steaming  satisfactorily,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  watch  how  the  steam  strikes  in  the  stack. 

WThere  a  high  exhaust-pipe  is  used,  it  is  best  to 
employ  a  single  nozzle.  Careful  experiments  have 
proved  that  a  well-designed  exhaust-pipe  ending  in  a 
single  nozzle  gives  the  best  results  in  creating  draft; 
but  unless  the  exhaust-pipe  is  large  and  properly 
shaped,  the  engine  is  likely  to  suffer  from  back-pres- 
sure in  the  cylinders. 

It  might  naturally  be  supposed  that  the  arrange- 
ment of  exhaust  which  produced  the  highest  vacuum 
would  produce  the  best  results  in  steam-making;  but 
that  is  not  always  the  case.  Very  carefully  conducted 
experiments,  carried  out  to  find  the  relative  value  of 
different  draft  appliances,  showed  decidedly  that  a 
lower  smoke-box  vacuum  would  keep  up  steam  with 
a  well-arranged  single  nozzle  than  with  any  form  of 


280  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

double  nozzle.  The  tendency  of  the  double  nozzle 
was  to  make  an  uneven  vacuum  in  the  smoke-box. 
That  is,  there  would  be  a  higher  vacuum  near  the 
place  where  the  exhaust  steam  passed  than  at  any 
other  part  of  the  smoke-box.  This  would  in  its  turn 
lead  to  the  gases  crowding  towards  a  certain  part  of 
the  tube-openings,  and  have  the  same  effect  as  a  badly 
adjusted  diaphragm-plate. 


THE    TETTICOAT-PIPE. 

Where  low  nozzles  are  employed,  a  petticoat-pipe 
must  intervene  to  convey  the  steam  centrally  to  the 
stack.  With  this  combination,  the  size  and  shape  of 
the  petticoat-pipe  must  be  adapted  to  the  size  of 
nozzles,  diameter  of  stack,  and  height  of  smoke-box. 
In  addition  to  being  useful  for  leading  the  steam  into 
the  smoke-stack,  the  petticoat-pipe  has  proved  an 
efficient  means  of  equalizing  the  draft  through  the 
tubes.  Unless  some  regulating  device  is  used  to  make 
the  gases  of  combustion  pass  evenly  through  the  tubes, 
the  stronger  rush  of  the  draft  will  be  through  the  upper 
rows,  and  in  consequence  the  lower  rows  will  get 
choked  up  with  cinders  and  soot.  The  petticoat-pipe 
when  properly  adjusted  is  a  remedy  for  this.  There 
is  a  certain  position  where  the  petticoat-pipe  will 
produce  the  best  steaming  results,  and  a  very  small 
change  from  that  position  will  affect  the  steaming 
qualities  injuriously.  A  very  small  change  will  result 
in  making  a  big  rush  of  gas  through  a  few  tubes,  while 
the  others  get  very  little  heat  to  make  steam  with. 


DRAFT  APPLIANCES.  281 


SMOKE-STACKS. 

A  recognized  rule  among  us  in  smoke-stack  design- 
ing has  been  to  make  the  stack  of  a  diameter  one  inch 
less  than  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder.  There  is  really 
no  proper  connection  between  the  diameters  of  cylin- 
der and  bmoke-stack;  but  the  rule  worked  fairly  well 
with  diamond  stacks,  where  an  inch  or  two  of  difference 
in  the  diameter  of  the  stack  was  of  little  consequence. 
The  diameter  and  shape  of  the  petticoat-pipe  was 
what  had  to  be  carefully  watched  with  a  diamond 
stack. 

With  an  open  stack  the  case  is  different.  The 
function  of  the  stack  is  to  pass  out  the  gases  that  are 
drawn  through  the  grates  and  flues,  and  therefore  its 
size  ought  to  bear  some  relation  to  the  cross-section 
of  flues  or  to  the  grate  area.  To  cause  the  exhaust- 
steam  from  a  single  nozzle  to  produce  draft  by  the 
pumping  action,  the  stack  must  be  small  enough  to 
permit  the  compact  exhaust-steam  to  fill  it  at  the  base. 
When  the  stack  is  too  large  for  this,  an  increased 
exhaust  velocity  is  required  to  keep  up  steam.  A 
reduction  of  stack  area  away  below  the  diameter  of  the 
cylinder  will  generally  permit  of  the  enlarging  of  the 
nozzle. 

Where  the  diamond  stack  is  used,  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  cone  and  its  attachments  make  a  material  differ- 
ence in  the  steaming  qualities  of  a  locomotive,  but  it 
is  merely  a  case  of  great  or  greater  obstruction  to  the 
draft.  The  tendency  is  to  improve  the  cone  by 
abolishing  it  altogether;  but  where  that  remedy  is  not 


282  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING.  . 

in  order,  it  should  be  constructed  and  set  so  that  the 
gases  will  not  rebound  into  the  cylindrical  part  of  the 
stack  after  striking  the  cone.  Where  the  cone  is  set 
low  in  the  diamond  this  is  liable  to  happen.  When 
the  lower  angle  of  the  diamond  is  formed  flat,  the 
tendency  is  to  cause  an  eddy  of  the  escaping  gases, 
which  is  detrimental  to  free  steaming. 

THE  EXTENSION   SMOKE-BOX  AND  DIAPHRAGM-PLATE. 

The  purpose  of  these  appliances  has  been  explained 
fully  on  preceding  pages.  The  extension  front  is  put 
on  to  form  a  receptacle  for  sparks;  and  the  diaphragm- 
plate  acts  as  a  guide  to  lead  the  sparks  forward  beyond 
the  point  of  strong  exhaust  suction. 

The  diaphragm  is  likewise  used  to  regulate  the  draft 
through  the  tubes,  and  when  properly  designed  it  does 
this  work  very  successfully.  It  should  not,  however, 
be  forgotten  that  the  diaphragm  is  a  necessary  evil,  the 
same  as  the  cone  in  the  diamond  stack,  and  that  under 
the  best  possible  arrangement  it  is  still  an  obstruction 
to  draft.  Where  it  can  be  made  to  perform  its  func- 
tions of  clearing  the  lower  rows  of  tubes  with  the  least 
possible  obstruction  to  draft,  there  the  engine  will 
steam  most  freely,  other  things  being  equal.  Not  a 
little  of  the  trouble  experienced  to  make  engines  with 
extension  fronts  steam  freely  has  arisen  through  stupid 
design  and  arrangement  of  the  diaphragm.  I  hap- 
pened upon  a  case  which  illustrates  this  point.  On  a 
first-class  road,  celebrated  for  its  advanced  style  of 
machinery,  there  was  an  engine  that  was  noted  as  a 
poor  steamer.  A  shrewd  engineer -took  this  engine 


DRAFT-APPLIANCES.  283 

out,  one  day,  because  his  regular  engine  was  held  in 
for  repairs.  The  engine  steamed  badly  from  the  start, 
and  the  train  was  got  over  the  road  by  slow  torture. 
This  engineer,  however,  knew  his  business,  and  as  the 
engine  was  of  the  same  class  as  the  one  he  ran  daily, 
he  saw  no  reason  why  she  should  not  steam  equally  as 
well.  At  the  end  of  the  division  he  opened  the  smoke- 
box  door  for  inspection,  and  the  diaphragm  was  found 
so  far  down  and  so  close  to  the  tube-sheet  that  the 
draft  was  badly  obstructed.  He  had  it  raised  to  what 
he  considered  the  proper  position,  and  on  the  return 
journey  the  engine  steamed  admirably,  and  threw  no 
fire.  On  returning  to  his  starting-point,  this  engineer 
went  to  the  master  mechanic  in  charge  and  explained 
the  experience  he  had  gone  through  with  the  engine. 
V/as  he  commended  for  his  intelligence  and  zeal  ? 
By  no  means.  He  was  told  that  he  had  no  right  to 
touch  the  diaphragm.  It  was  set  in  the  standard 
position,  and  standards  on  this  road  are  like  the  laws 
of  the  Medes  and  Persians — unchangeable.  It  looked 
like  a  case  of  devotion  to  standards  run  to  seed.  A 
very  slight  change  in  the  diaphragm-plate  often  affects 
the  steaming  of  an  engine  as  materially  as  a  small 
change  in  the  position  of  a  petticoat-pipe. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

COMBUSTION. 
IMPORTANCE    OF    COAL   ECONOMY. 

THE  coal  account  of  the  locomotive  department 
constitutes  a  very  important  element  in  railroad  ex- 
penditures; it  makes  a  heavy  drain  upon  every  railroad 
in  the  country.  A  saving  of  15  per  cent  in  the  coal 
account  of  a  railroad  might  often  have  been  the  means 
of  keeping  a  company  solvent  that  went  into  the  hands 
of  a  receiver.  A  bad  fireman  generally  wastes  more 
than  15  per  cent  over  the  quantity  of  fuel  used  by  a 
good  fireman.  We  are  told  that  the  man  who  makes 
two  blades  of  grass  grow  where  one  blade  used  to  grow 
is  a  benefactor  of  the  human  race.  As  the  quantity 
of  coal  provided  for  the  use  of  mankind  is  limited, 
and  the  means  of  cultivating  a  fresh  supply  are  not 
apparent,  it  would  seem  that  the  man  who  makes  one 
pound  of  coal  do  the  work  that  has  generally  called  for 
the  consumption  of  one  and  a  half  pounds  is  worthy 
of  a  share  of  the  admiration  accorded  to  the  industrious 
agriculturist.  There  are  locomotives  in  the  country 
where  the  coal  consumed,  in  the  generation  of  steam, 
is  used  as  economically  as  knowledge  and  skill  com- 

284 


CO  MB  US  TION.  285 

bined  can  effect,  but  these  cases  are  not  so  common  as 
they  ought  to  be.  Much  has  been  said  and  written  of 
late  years  about  proper  methods  of  firing,  founded  on 
correct  conceptions  of  the  laws  that  regulate  combus- 
tion, but  a  great  many  of  our  locomotives  continue  to 
be  fired  in  a  way  that  violates  Nature's  laws,  and  a 
senseless  waste  of  coal  is  the  result.  The  opportuni- 
ties for  firemen  mending  their  ways  and  earning  the 
distinction  of  being  public  benefactors,  to  say  nothing 
of  being  better  worthy  of  employment,  are  innumer- 
able. 

There  are  gratifying  evidences  that  the  modern  en- 
gineer or  fireman  is  striving  to  acquire  the  knowledge 
and  the  skill  that  make  him  thoroughly  master  of  his 
business.  For  the  help  of  such  men  the  following 
chapter  has  been  prepared. 


MASTERING   THE   PRINCIPLES. 

To  properly  comprehend  what  happens  to  keep  a 
fire  burning,  we  must  understand  something  about  the 
laws  of  Nature  as  they  are  explained  under  the  science 
of  chemistry.  Practical  men  are  generally  easily 
repelled  by  the  strange  names  which  they  meet  with 
in  reading  anything  where  chemical  terms  are  used. 
An  engineer  or  fireman  who  is  ambitious  to  learn  the 
principles  of  his  business  ought  to  attack  the  hard 
words  with  a  little  courage  and  perseverance,  when  it 
will  be  found  that  the  difficulties  of  understanding 
them  will  vanish. 


286  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

SCIENTIFIC    FIRING. 

A  man  may  become  a  good  fireman  without  know- 
ing anything  about  the  laws  of  Nature  that  control 
combustion.  This  frequently  happens.  If  he  becomes 
skillful  in  making  an  engine  steam  freely,  while  using 
the  least  possible  supply  of  fuel,  he  has  learned  by 
practice  to  put  in  the  coal  and  to  regulate  the  admis- 
sion of  air  in  a  scientific  manner.  That  is,  he  puts  in 
the  exact  quantity  of  fuel  to  suit  the  amount  of  air 
that  is  passing  into  the  fire-box,  and  in  the  shape  that 
will  cause  it  to  produce  the  greatest  possible  amount 
of  heat.  When  this  degree  of  skill  is  attained  by  men 
ignorant  of  Nature's  laws,  it  is  attained  by  groping  in 
the  dark  to  find  out  the  right  way.  A  man  who  has 
acquired  his  skill  in  this  manner  is  not,  however,  per- 
fectly master  of  the  art  of  firing,  for  any  change  of 
furnace  arrangement  is  likely  to  bewilder  him,  and  he 
has  to  find  out  by  repeated  trying  what  method  of 
firing  suits  best.  He  is  also  liable  to  waste  fuel  use- 
lessly, or  to  cause  delay  by  want  of  steam  when  any- 
thing unusual  happens. 

KNOWLEDGE    IS    POWER. 

A  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  combustion  teaches  a 
man  to  go  straight  to  the  correct  method,  and  the 
information  possessed  enables  him  to  deal  intelligently 
with  the  numerous  difficulties  which  are  constantly 
arising  owing  to  inferior  fuel,  obstructed  draft  due  to 
various  causes,  and  to  viciously  designed  fire-boxes 
and  smoke-boxes.  To  illustrate:  Engineer  West  was 


COMBUSTION,  287 

pulling  a  passenger  train  one  day,  and  his  grates  got 
stuck.  He  ran  as  far  as  he  could  till  he  could  do 
nothing  more  for  want  of  steam,  then  he  stopped  and 
cleaned  the  fire;  loss  of  time  over  one  hour  with  an 
important  train.  Engineer  Thomas,  on  the  same  road, 
had  a  similar  experience  with  the  grates;  but  he 
understood  combustion,  and  knew  that  all  the  fire 
wanted  was  air  put  in  so  that  it  would  strike  the  fire 
before  it  passed  into  the  flues.  He  got  an  old  scoop 
and  rigged  it  in  the  fire-box  door  slanting  towards  the 
surface  of  the  fire.  He  did  not  need  to  clean  the  fire, 
and  he  went  in  nearly  on  time.  He  could  not  get  air 
to  mix  with  the  fire  through  the  grates,  so  he  devised 
a  plan  to  inject  it  above  the  fire. 

ELEMENTS    THAT    MAKE    UP   A    FIRE. 

The  nature  of  fuel,  the  composition  of  the  air  that 
fans  the  fire,  and  the  character  of  the  gases  formed  by 
the  burning  fuel,  and  the  proper  proportions  of  air  to 
fuel  for  producing  the  greatest  degree  of  heat,  are  the 
principal  things  to  be  learned  in  the  study  of  the  laws 
relating  to  combustion. 

All  things  are  composed  from  about  sixty-five  ele- 
mentary substances,  which  have  combined  together  to 
form  the  immense  variety  of  substances  found  in  and 
around  the  globe.  A  simple  substance  or  element  is 
something  out  of  which  nothing  else  can  be  got,  no 
matter  how  finely  it  may  be  divided,  or  to  what 
searching  tests  it  may  be  subjected.  Elements  unite 
together  to  form  compounds,  or  combine  with  corn-' 
pounds  to  form  other  compound  substances.  When 


288  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

elements  or  compounds  combine  to  form  new  sub- 
stances, they  always  do  so  in  fixed  proportions  by 
weight;  and  if  there  is  any  excess  of  any  substance 
present  it  does  not  combine,  but  remains  unused.  It 
is  important  to  remember  this,  as  it  has  a  direct  bear- 
ing upon  the  economy  of  fuel.  A  few  of  the  principal 
elements  are  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  carbon, 
sjlphur,  iron,  copper,  mercury,  gold,  and  silver.  We 
will  have  to  deal  principally  with  the  four  first  men- 
tioned. 

The  elements  which  perform  the  most  important 
functions  in  the  act  of  combustion  are  oxygen  and 
carbon.  Carbon  is  the  fuel,  and  oxygen  is  the  sup- 
porter of  combustion.  Combustion  results  from  a 
strong  natural  tendency  that  oxygen  and  carbon  have 
,for  each  other,  but  they  cannot  unite  freely  till  they 
reach  a  certain  high  temperature,  when  they  combine 
very  rapidly,  with  violent  evolution  of  light  and  heat. 

FUEL   AND    ITS    COMBINING   ELEMENTS. 

All  the  fuel  used  for  steam-making  is  composed  of 
carbon,  or  the  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen. 
Carbon  is  the  principal  element  found  in  trees  and  in 
all  woody  fiber,  and  is  the  fundamental  ingredient  of 
all  kinds  of  coal.  The  ordinary  run  of  American 
bituminous  coal  contains  from  50  to  80  per  cent  of 
fixed  carbon,  which  is  the  coke,  and  from  12  to  35  per 
cent  of  volatile  substances,  which  burn  with  a  lurid 
flame,  and  supply  the  ingredients  of  coal-gas.  These 
inflammable  compounds  are  known  as  hydrocarbons, 
being  combinations  of  hydrogen  and  carbon.  Anthra- 


COMBUSTION.  289 

cite  coal  differs  from  other  coals  in  the  fact  that  it 
consists  principally  of  fixed  carbon,  with  but  little 
volatile  matter.  Good  anthracite  contains  as  high  as 
90  per  cent  of  pure  carbon. 

All  the  air  required  for  furnace  combustion  is  taken 
from  the  atmosphere,  which  consists  of  a  mixture  of 
i  pound  of  oxygen  to  3.35  pounds  of  nitrogen;  or,  by 
volume,  i  cubic  foot  of  oxygen  to  3.76  cubic  feet  of 
nitrogen.  Nitrogen  is  an  inert,  neutral  gas  that  gives 
no  aid  in  sustaining  life  or  in  promoting  combustion ; 
but  it  passes  into  the  furnace  with  the  oxygen,  and 
has  to  be  heated  to  the  same  temperature  as  the  other 
gases. 

SCIENTIFIC    MEASUREMENTS. 

In  treating  of  combustion  it  is  constantly  necessary 
to  speak  of  measuring  gases  by  weight.  How  air  and 
other  gases  can  be  weighed  as  if  they  were  sugar  or 
tea  seems  a  puzzle  to  many  men  not  acquainted  with 
laboratory  work;  but  they  must  take  it  for  granted 
that  these  things  are  done. 

Before  dealing  with  the  action  of  the  air  on  the  fuel 
resting  on  the  grates,  we  might  mention  that  scientists 
have  devised  a  scale  of  measurement  of  heat,  which  is 
just  as  necessary  for  the  comprehension  of  combustion 
as  ordinary  weights  and  measures  are  for  mercantile 
purposes.  The  amount  of  heat  necessary  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  one  pound  of  water,  at  its  greatest 
density,  one  degree  Fahrenheit  is  called  a  heat-unit, 
or  sometimes  a  thermal  unit.  This  is  equivalent  in 
mechanical  energy  to  the  power  required  for  raising 


290  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

772  pounds  one  foot  high.  The  enormous  amount  of 
mechanical  energy  present  in  each  pound  of  good  coal 
will  be  understood  from  a  small  calculation.  A  pound 
of  good  coal  properly  burned  generates  about  14,500 
heat-units.  Then  14,500  multiplied  by  772,  the 
number  of  foot-pounds  in  each  heat-unit,  gives 
11,194,000  foot-pounds,  which  is  sufficient  energy  to 
raise  the  weight  of  one  ton  more  than  one  mile  high. 
Little  more  than  10  per  cent  of  this  energy  is  ever 
utilized  by  being  converted  into  the  work  of  driving 
machinery. 

APPLYING  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    COMBUSTION   TO   A 
FIRE-BOX. 

• 

Having  mentioned  the  leading  elements  that  take 
part  in  keeping  a  fire  burning,  we  will  now  apply  the 
operation  to  the  work  done  in  the  fire-box  of  a  loco- 
motive. Let  us  take  a  common  form  of  engine,  such 
as  that  shown  in  Fig.  40,  page  322,  with  a  fire-box 
72  X  35  inches,  which  makes  about  17  square  feet  of 
grate  area.  The  engine  starts  with  a  fairly  heavy  train, 
and  has  to  keep  up  a  running  speed  of  40  miles  an 
hour.  To  maintain  steam  for  this  work  the  engine 
burns  60  pounds  of  coal  per  mile,  which  is  equal  to 
2400  pounds  per  hour.  This  requires  that  about  141 
pounds  of  coal  must  be  burned  on  each  square  foot  of 
grate  surface  every  hour,  a  very  rapid  rate  of  combus- 
tion, but  a  rate  common  enough  on  many  railroads. 
As  shown  in  the  cut  referred  to,  the  engine  is  of  the 
kind  most  commonly  found  pulling^  our  passenger 


COMB  US  TION.  2  9 1 

trains,  which  have  no  other  means  of  admitting  air  to 
the  fire  except  through  the  ash-pan. 

HEAT  VALUE  OF  THE  PROPER  ADMIXTURE  OF  AIR. 

When  the  air,  drawn  violently  through  the  grates 
by  the  suction  of  the  exhaust,  strikes  the  glowing  fuel, 
the  oxygen  in  the  air  separates  from  the  nitrogen  and 
combines  with  the  carbon  of  the  coal.  It  has  been 
mentioned  that  elements  unite  in  certain  fixed  propor- 
tions. In  some  cases  the  same  elements  will  combine 
in  different  proportions  to  form  different  kinds  of 
products.  If  the  supply  of  air  is  so  liberal  that  there 
is  abundance  of  oxygen  for  the  burning  fuel,  the 
carbon  will  unite  in  the  proportion  of  12  parts  by 
weight  (one  atom)  with  32  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen 
(two  atoms).  This  produces  carbonic  acid,  an  in- 
tensely hot  gas,  and  therefore  of  great  value  in  steam- 
making.  If,  however,  the  supply  of  air  is  restricted 
and  the  oxygen  scarce,  the  atom  of  carbon  is  con- 
tented to  grasp  one  atom  of  oxygen,  and  the  combina- 
tion is  made  at  the  rate  of  12  parts  by  weight  of  carbon 
to  1 6  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen,  producing  carbonic- 
oxide  gas,  which  is  not  nearly  so  hot  as  carbonic-acid 
gas.  It  makes  a  very  important  difference  in  the 
economical  use  of  fuel  which  of  these  two  gases  is 
formed  in  the  fire. 

One  pound  of  carbon  uniting  with  oxygen  to  form 
carbonic-tf^zV/  gas  generates  14,500  units  of  heat,  or 
sufficient  to  raise  85  pounds  of  water  from  the,  tank 
temperature  to  the  boiling-point.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  one  pound  of  carbon  unites  with  oxygen  to  form 


2Q2  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

carbonic-oxide  gas,  only  4500  heat-units  are  gen- 
erated, or  sufficient  to  raise  26^  pounds  of  water  from 
the  temperature  of  the  tank  to  the  boiling-point.  The 
same  quantity  of  fuel,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  used 
in  both  cases,  the  only  difference  being  that  less 
oxygen  is  in  the  fire  mixture. 

VOLUME    OF   AIR    NEEDED    TO    FEED    A   FIRE. 

Our  engine  using  2400  pounds  of  coal  per  hour  has 
to  burn  2\  pounds  per  minute  on  each  square  foot  of 
grate.  A  very  large  volume  of  air  has  to  pass  through 
the  grates  to  supply  all  the  oxygen  necessary  to  com- 
bine with  the  quantity  of  coal  mentioned.  The  com- 
bining proportions  of  carbon  and  oxygen  to  form 
carbonic  acid  being  12  to  32,  the  combustion  of  each 
pound  of  carbon  requires  2f  pounds  of  oxygen.  It 
takes  4.35  pounds  of  atmospheric  air  to  supply  one 
pound  of  oxygen ;  therefore  at  the  least  calculation  it 
will  take  more  than  nj  pounds  of  air  to  provide  the 
gas  essential  to  the  economical  combustion  of  each 
pound  of  coal.  But  practice  has  demonstrated  that 
where  combustion  is  rapid  the  fuel  must  be  saturated 
with  the  air  that  contains  the  oxygen,  bathed  in  it,  as 
it  were;  otherwise  a  large  portion  of  the  furnace-gases 
will  pass  away  uncombined  with  the  element  that  gives 
them  any  heating  value.  So  it  is  estimated  that  at 
least  20  pounds  of  air  must  be  passed  through  the 
grates  of  a  locomotive  to  supply  the  oxygen  for  each 
pound  of  coal  burned.  At  this  rate  our  engine  must 
draw  in  20  X  2^  =  46.66  pounds  of  air  per  minute 
through  every  foot  of  grate  area.  One  pound  of  air, 


CO  MB  US  TION.  293 

at  ordinary  temperature  and  atmospheric  pressure, 
occupies  about  13  cubic  feet;  so  it  takes  over  600 
cubic  feet  of  air  to  pass  every  minute  through  each 
square  foot  of  grate.  This  volume  of  air  would  be 
sufficient  to  fill  a  cylinder  18  X  24  inches  nearly  one 
hundred  and  seventy  times.  Or,  to  put  it  another 
way,  if  there  were  no  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  air 
through  each  foot  of  grate,  a  trunk  of  air  over  600 
feet  long  has  to  pass  into  the  fire  every  minute..  As 
more  than  half  the  opening  is  obstructed  by  the  iron 
and  coal,  a  column  at  least  1200  feet  long  -has  to  be 
admitted  each  minute.  With  some  forms  of  grates 
the  openings  are  much  more  restricted,  and  conse- 
quently the  inward  rush  of  air  must  be  faster  in  pro- 
portion. 

VELOCITY    OF   THE   FIRE-GASES. 

There  are  several  practical  objections  to  the  air 
blowing  through  the  grates  like  a  hurricane.  The 
high  speed  of  the  gases  lifts  the  smaller  particles  of 
the  fuel  and  starts  them  toward  the  entrance  of  the 
flues,  helping  to  begin  the  action  of  spark-throwing. 
Where  they  find  a  thin  or  dead  part  of  the  fire,  the 
gases  pass  in  below  the  igniting-temperature,.  or  tend 
in  spots  to  reduce  the  heat  below  the  igniting-point, 
and  go  away  unconsumed,  at  the  same  time  making  a 
cold  streak  in  the  fire-box,  chilling  the  flues  or  other 
surface  touched,,  and  starting  leaks  and  cracks.  Then 
the  great  volume  of  air  has,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances,, to  be  heated  up  to  the  temperature  of  the 
fire-box,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  heat  produced 


294  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

from  the  coal  has  to  be  used  up  doing  this  before  any 
of  it  can  be  utilized  in  steam-making.  When  a  large 
volume  of  gas  is  employed  it  must  be  passed  through 
the  furnace  and  tubes  at  a  high  velocity,  the  result 
being  that  there  is  not  sufficient  time-  for  the  heat  to 
be  imparted  to  the  water;  consequently  the  gases  pass 
into  the  stack  at  a  higher  temperature  than  would  be 
the  case  if  the  movement  of  the  gases  were  slower. 
One  can  get  a  good  personal  illustration  of  this  by 
passing  his  hand  through  the  flame  of  a  gas-burner. 

A  thoughtless  remedy  so  rfeadily  tried  with  locomo- 
tives that  do  not  steam  freely  is  the  use  of  smaller 
nozzles.  That  produces  bad  Results  in  two  ways.  It 
causes  increased  backpressure  in  the  cylinders  through 
the  restrictions  put  upon  the  escape  of  the  steam,  thus 
reducing  the  power  that  the  engine  can  exert  and 
causing  more  steam  to  be  used  to  perform  a  given 
measure  of  work.  It  also  increases  the  velocity  of  the 
fire-gases,  with  the  result  that  less  of  the  heat  is  im- 
parted to  the  water  in  the  boiler. 

Our  engine  is  drawing  in  600  cubic  feet  of  air  per 
minute  through  each  square  foot  of  grate,  that  is, 
600  X  17  equals  11,200  cubic  feet  for  the  whole  grate 
area.  The  act  of  combustion  is  turning  40  pounds 
of  coal  per  minute  into  gas,  adding  about  300  cubic 
feet  more  to  the  volume.  This  cloud  of  gas  has  to 
pass  out  through  202  two-inch  flues  that  give  a  total 
opening  of  485  square  inches,  equal  to  3.36  square 
feet.  The  body  of  gas  reduced  to  this  diameter  makes 
a  column  over  3400  feet  long,  so  it  must  pass  through 
at  a  velocity  of  at  least  3400  feet  per  minute. 


COMBLTSTI'ON.  295 

THREATENED    LOSS    OF    HEAT. 

From  these  figures  it  will  be  understood  that  in 
firing  loss  of  heat  is  threatened  from  two  opposite 
directions.  If  there  is  not  enough  air  admitted,  a  gas 
of  inferior  heating  power  will  be  generated,  and  a 
waste  of  heat  will  take  place  equal  to  the  difference 
between  26J  pounds  of  water  evaporated  by  the  heat 
from  one  pound  of  coal  burned  as  carbonic  oxide,  and 
85  pounds  of  water  evaporated  when  the  same  weight 
of  coal  is  burned  to  carbonic-acid  gas.  If  the  admis- 
sion of  air  is  greater  than  what  is  necessary,  heat  will 
be  wasted  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  needed  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  the  superfluous  air  up  to  the 
heat  of  the  furnace.  Those  who  have  noted  the 
difference  in  the  fuel  needed  to  heat  a  small  and  a 
large  room  thirty  or  forty  degrees  may  readily  under- 
stand the  quantity  of  coal  that  must  be  wasted  raising 
about  1000  degrees  the  temperature  of  the  blizzard  of 
extra  air  that  is  often  passing  through  the  fire-box  of 
a  locomotive.  Then,  as  has  been  mentioned,  an  extra 
supply  of  air  causes  an  increased  speed  of  draft,  and 
this  prevents  the  sheets  and  flues  from  abstracting  as 
much  heat  as  they  would  if  the  speed  of  the  gases 
were  slower. 

IGNITING-TEMPERATURE    QF   THE    FIRE. 

The  igniting-temperature  of  the  fire  has  been 
repeatedly  mentioned.  Everybody  meets  daily  with 
illustrations  of  the  fact  that  fuel  will  not  burn  till  it 
has  been  raised  to  a  certain  heat..  If  you  put  a  piece 


296  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

of  wood  or  coal  on  the  fire  it  remains  unchanged  for  a 
time  till  the  temperature  at  which  it  combines  with 
oxygen  is  reached,  when  it  begins  to  burn.  The  point 
of  heat  at  which  it  begins  to  burn  is  called  the  ignit- 
ing-temperature.  Different  kinds  of  fuel  have  differ- 
ent igniting-points.  Coal-gas  does  not  burn  below 
a  red  heat  of  iron,  and  carbon  has  a  still  higher  ignit- 
ing-point.  If  you  take  a  piece  of  iron,  heated  dim 
red,  and  try  to  light  an  illuminating-gas  jet  with  it 
you  will  not  succeed.  Increase  the  heat  till  the  iron 
approaches  orange  color,  and  it  will  then  light  the  gas. 
From  this  it  will  be  learned  that  the  igniting-tempera- 
ture  of  hydrocarbon-gas  is  about  the  cherry  heat  of 
iron.  As  the  igniting-temperature  of  carbon  is  still 
higher,  it  will  be  understood  that  coal  must  be  kept 
at  a  higher  temperature  still  to  make  it  burn. 

When  wood,  coal,  or  gas  will  not  begin  to  burn 
outside  till  they  have  been  raised  to  the  heat  men- 
tioned, it  may  be  readily  understood  that  they  will  not 
burn  in  a  locomotive  fire-box  if  they  are  not  up  to  the 
igniting-temperature.  As  the  active  portion  of  the 
fire  is  constantly  distilling  gases  from  the  fuel  that  rise 
upwards,  and  require  a  high  temperature  for  their 
combustion,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  a  great  waste 
of  heat  must  happen  when  the  temperature  of  any 
part  of  the  fire-box  gets  so  low  that  the  gases  pass 
away  unconsumed.  So  the  fireman  ought  to  make  it 
his  business  to  see  that  the  fuel  in  any  part  of  the 
fire-box  is  not  permitted  to  fall  below  the  temperature 
of  combustion.  It  may  be  said  or  believed  that  the 
heat  in  the  fire-box  is  so  high  that  it  is  always  up  to 


COMB  US  TION.  297 

the  igniting-temperature.  This  would  be  a  mistake. 
The  rush  of  cold  air  is  so  great  that  a  thin  part  of  the 
fire  readily  permits  air  that  is  not  up  to  the  igniting- 
temperature  to  pass  through,  and  it  chills  all  the  gas 
it  touches.  When  a  heavy  charge  of  coal  is  thrown 
into  the  fire-box,  the  cold  material  reduces  for  a  time 
part  of  the  fire-box  below  the  igniting-temperature, 
and  the  gases  distilled  by  the  hot  fire  beneath  are 
ruined  by  the  cold  place  they  have  to  go  through 
above,  and  they  pass  into  the  flues  in  the  shape  of 
worthless  smoke  and  coal-gas.  The  fire-box  sheets 
abstract  the  heat  so  quickly  that  waste  will  occur 
from  the  fuel  close  to  the  sheets,  or  the  gases  passing 
up  beside  them,  getting  below  the  igniting-tempera- 
ture, unless  the  fireman  watches  to  see  that  a  bright 
fire  is  kept  up  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sheets. 

BURNING   ANTHRACITE    COAL. 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  principally  the  condi- 
tions met  with  in  burning  carbon  alone,  such  as  may 
be  encountered  in  burning  coke,  or  in  the  firing  of 
anthracite-coal-burning  engines.  Anthracite  burns 
more  slowly  than  bituminous  coal,  and  consequently 
a  larger  grate  area  has  to  be  provided  in  order  that 
sufficient  coal  may  be  burned  to  keep  up  the  steam 
required.  As  cylinders  of  a  given  size  draw  from  the 
boiler  the  same  volume  of  steam  per  minute,  no 
matter  what  kind  of  coal  is  used,  and  as  soft  coal  which 
burns  freely  produces  about  the  same  quantity  of 
steam  per  pound  consumed  as  anthracite  which  burns 
slowly,  means  must  be  devised  to  make  the  hard-coal- 


2Q3  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE   RUNNING. 

burning  engine  consume  the  same  quantity  per  minute 
as  the  other,  and  no  better  way  has  been  found  than 
that  of  making  a  large  fire-box. 

Anthracite  coal  has  to  be  fired  to  suit  the  size  of  the 
lumps  used.  If  the  coal  is  in  coarse  lumps  weighing 
in  the  neighborhood  of  eight  pounds  each,  a  thick  fire 
must  be  carried,  for  the  lumps  lie  so  open  that  the  air 
would  pass  so  freely  through  that  it  would  chill  the 
fire-box.  A  thin  fire  of  this  kind  of  coal  cannot  be 
carried  in  a  locomotive  furnace,  for  the  same  reason 
that  you  cannot  keep  a  fire  burning  in  a  small  stove 
with  three  or  four  big  lumps  of  hard  coal.  In  firing 
lump  coal  of  large  size,  even  when  a  thick  fire  is  car- 
ried, constant  care  has  to  be  exercised  to  prevent  loss 
of  heat  from  excessive  quantities  of  air  passing  through 
holes.  There  is  a  constant  tendency  for  air-passages 
to  form  close  to  the  sheets,  and  good  firemen  provide 
against  this  by  keeping  the  fire  heavier  close  to  the 
sheets  than  at  other  parts.  When  too  much  air  is 
admitted  through  the  fire,  the  tendency  is  to  reduce 
parts  of  the  fire-box  below  the  igniting-temperature, 
with  the  results  already  mentioned. 

Firing  with  large  lumps  is  wasteful  both  with 
anthracite  and  bituminous  coal. 

When  the  smaller-broken  qualities  of  anthracite 
coal  are  used,  a  very  large  grate  area  is  necessary, 
because  the  fire  must  be  burned  thin,  and  a  thin  fire 
will  not  stand  the  action  of  a  sharp  exhaust  unless  the 
blast  is  divided  over  a  wide  area.  The  man  who  makes 
a  highly  successful  fireman  with  hard  coal,  whether 
it  be  in  lumps  or  of  the  small  quality,  is  constantly  on 


COMBUSTION.  299 

the  lookout  for  spots  where  an  oversupply  of  air  is 
beginning  to  work  through,  and  he  promptly  checks 
this  by  applying  fresh  coal  at  the  proper  point. 

BURNING   BITUMINOUS    COAL. 

The  burning  of  bituminous  coal  is  a  much  more 
complex  operation  than  that  of  burning  anthracite. 
The  volatile  gases  in  this  kind  of  coal  contain  great 
heat-generating  power,  but  they  are  difficult  to  burn 
so  that  none  of  the  heating  elements  will  be  lost. 
Average  bituminous  coal  contains  65  per  cent  of  car- 
bon and  25  per  cent  of  hydrocarbons.  About  J  by 
weight  of  the  latter  is  hydrogen-gas,  which  makes  the 
hottest  fire  that  can  be  burned;  but  it  ignites  only  at 
a  very  high  temperature,  as  has  been  alluded  to,  and 
if  the  fire-box  or  any  part  of  it  gets  cooler  than  this 
all  or  a  part  of  the  gas  passes  away  unconsumed.  In 
that  case  there  is  direct  loss  by  the  gas  not  being  used 
to  create  heat,  and  also  loss  due  to  the  work  done  by 
the  burning  carbon  in  gasifying  the  hydrocarbons. 
To  turn  a  solid  into  a  gas  uses  up  heat  in  the  same 
way  that  evaporating  water  into  steam  does. 

To  burn,  hydrogen-gas  unites  in  the  proportion  of 
two  parts  by  weight  (two  atoms)  to  sixteen  parts  by 
weight  of  oxygen  (one  atom),  and  the  product  is 
water.  It  may  appear  strange  that  water  is  formed 
by  the  burning  of  a  fire;  but  such  is  the  case,  and  a 
tremendous  heat  is  evolved  by  the  operation.  The 
water  passes  away  in  the  form  of  colorless  steam;  but 
when  it  touches  a  cool  place  the  vapor  instantly  con- 
denses into  water.  When  a  fire  is  newly  lighted  in 


300  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

the  fire-box  of  a  locomotive  the  drops  of  water  that 
may  be  seen  oozing  out  of  the  smoke-box  joints  is  the 
water  formed  from  the  hydrogen  of  the  fuel. 

HEAT  VALUE  OF  THE  VOLATILE  GASES. 

The  combustion  of  each  pound  of  hydrogen-gas,  if 
it  combines  with  eight  pounds  of  oxygen  taken  from 
the  air,  produces  about  62,000  heat-units,  or  enough 
to  raise  about  365  pounds  of  water  from  the  tank 
temperature  to  the  boiling-point.  It  will  be  noted 
that  one  pound  of  hydrogen  calls  for  eight  pounds  of 
oxygen  (2  to  16)  for  perfect  combustion,  while  each 
pound  of  carbon  requires  only  2|  pounds  of  oxygen 
(12  to  32).  As  the  hydrocarbon-gases  are  released  at 
the  top  of  the  fire,  it  is  difficult  getting  this  very  large 
volume  of  air  needed  for  combustion  to  the  proper 
place,  unless  means  are  taken  for  admitting  air  above 
the  fire. 

Where  there  is  much  volatile  gas  in  the  coal,  it  is 
an  economical  arrangement  to  admit  air  above  the 
fuel;  but  the  means  of  its  admission  ought  to  be  under 
the  control  of  the  fireman,  or  there  is  likely  to  be  loss 
of  heat  by  the  ingress  of  cold  air  when  it  is  not 
needed. 

It  is  important  in  the  economical  combustion  of 
coal  to  keep  the  fire  as  bright  on  the  top  as  possible. 
Experimenters  on  combustion  have  found  that  "  the 
efficiency  of  fuel  to  heat  by  radiation  depends  directly 
upon  the  luminosity  of  the  products  of  combustion." 
That  means  that  a  smoky  or  cloudy  fire  wastes  a  great 
part  of  the  heat,  because  the  heat -rays  cannot  strike 


COMB  US  TION.  30 1 

the  heating  surfaces.  The  "  luminosity"  or  bright- 
ness of  the  flames  of  a  fire  is  said  to  be  due  to  the 
free  carbon  liberated  by  the  hydrocarbons  of  the  flame 
being  heated  up  to  the  temperature  of  the  flame  itself. 
The  solid  particles  becoming  incandescent  act  like 
tiny  incandescent  gas-lights,  each  particle  of  free  car- 
bon throwing  off  heat  and  light  in  all  directions  until 
consumed  and  converted  into  carbonic-acid  gas.  This 
free  carbon  is  the  last  component  of  the  flame  to  burn, 
and  it  only  burns  at  a  very  high  temperature;  so  if 
the  fire-box  is  not  maintained  very  hot  there  will  be 
little  bright  flame,  the  volatile  gases  will  pass  off  as 
smoke,  and  those  burned  will  lose  part  of  their  value 
through  not  being  able  to  send  through  the  mist  of 
smoke  their  steam-making  rays. 

HEAT   LOSSES   THAT   RESULT   FROM    BAD    FIRING. 

Our  engine  is  laboring  along  with  a  heavy,  thick  fire 
on  the  grates.  The  air  that  passes  up  into  the  fire 
has  the  atoms  of  oxygen  seized  on  by  the  glowing 
carbon  first  encountered,  and  the  heat  generated  keeps 
distilling  the  hydrocarbon-gas  from  the  green  coal 
above.  There  being  no  means  of  admitting  air  above 
the  fire,  and  there  being'very  little  oxygen  left  in  the 
air  after  it  has  worked  up  through  the  body  of  the  burn- 
ing fuel,  the  volatile  gases  fail  to  receive  their  supply 
of  oxygen,  and  with  their  great  steam-making  possi- 
bilities they  pass  away  in  the  form  of  worthless  smoke 
and  unconsumed  coal-gas.  The  fire  being  so  thick 
and  compact  that  the  air  cannot  diffuse  freely  through 
the  mass,  a  considerable  part  of  the  solid  carbon  does 


302  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

not  receive  its  full  share  of  oxygen,  so  it  passes  away 
in  the  inferior  heating  condition  of  carbonic  oxide. 

An  inferior  fireman,  who  maintains  a  thick  fire,  will 
often  use  up  an  enormous  quantity  of  coal  without 
making  an  engine  steam  freely.  This  is  caused  by 
the  air  failing  to  reach  the  25  per  cent  of  the  fuel  that 
exists  as  hydrocarbons,  and  which  is  in  consequence 
utterly  wasted ;  and  because  part  of  the  solid  carbon 
is  burned  to  carbonic  oxide,  which  produces  4500  heat- 
units,  as  compared  with  14,500  heat-units  that  would 
result  from  the  carbon  being  consumed  as  carbonic- 
acid  gas.  A  fire  run  in  this  wasteful  manner  is  always 
smoky,  and  the  fire-box  looks  dull  and  cloudy,  with  a 
tendency  for  the  sheets  to  hold* a  covering  of  soot. 
Other  losses  due  to  a  smoky  fire  have  already  been 
explained. 

Some  firemen  have  acquired  the  habit  of  firing  at 
times  when  the  fire-door  ought  to  be  kept  closed. 
As  soon  as  the  engineer  opens  the  throttle  to  pull  out 
of  a  station  these  men  begin  filling  up  the  fire-box. 
Cold  air  is  pumped  through  the  flues  without  any  need 
for  it,  and  the  charge  of  fresh  coal  put  in  at  the  wrong 
time  helps  add  to  the  chilling  effect.  When  approach- 
ing a  heavy  pull  these  men  'generally  let  the  fire  get 
thin,  and  then  they  are  ready  to  begin  shoveling  in- 
dustriously when  the  engine  is  toiling  hard  up  the 
grade. 

EFFECT   OF    SMALL   NOZZLES. 

Thick,  heavy  firing,  with  all  the  losses  described,  is 
not  always  caused  by  ignorance  or  want  of  skill  on  the 


COMBUSTION,  3°3 

part  of  the  fireman.  It  is  very  frequently  the  case 
that  an  engine  will  not  steam  freely  unless  a  heavy 
fire  is  carried.  This  state  of  things  is  nearly  always 
due  to  the  use  of  very  small  nozzles,  which  make  the 
blast  so  sharp  that  a  thin  fire  could  not  be  used,  as  the 
fierce  rush  of  air  would  be  constantly  tearing  holes  in 
places  through  which  the  cold  air  would  pass  directly 
into  the  flues.  When  an  engine  does  not  steam 
freely,  the  tendency  always  is  to  call  for  smaller 
nozzles;  yet  it  often  happens  that  the  nozzles  are 
already  too  small  for  free  steaming.  The  diverse 
character  of  the  coal  supplied  on  most  roads  is  re- 
sponsible for  great  waste  of  fuel.  With  the  average 
coal  an  engine  will  steam  while  using  a  large  nozzle. 
But  occasionally , some  cars  of  coal  will  be  sent  in  that 
contains  a  large  percentage  of  slate  and  other  incom- 
bustible material.  When  an  engine  gets  a  tenderful 
of  this  stuff,  there  will  be  trouble  in  making  steam 
freely  enough  to  take  the  train  along  on  time.  The 
men  know  that  a  sharp  blast  would  help  them  in  such 
a  case,  and  it  is  natural  that  they  should  be  ready 
always  to  provide  against  this  emergency. 

BOILER-DESIGNING. 

The  mistakes  and  prejudices  of  enginemen  often 
lead  to  the  use  of  extravagantly  small  nozzles;  but 
what  in  most  cases  makes  the  use  of  small  nozzles 
necessary  is  badly  proportioned  locomotives.  Where 
the  cylinders  are  too  large  for  the  boiler,  or  where  the 
fire-box  is  badly  proportioned,  the  defect  must  be 
overcome  by  employing  small  nozzles. 


304  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

For  burning  bituminous  coal  economically  means 
should  be  provided  for  regulating  the  supply  of  air 
above  and  below  the  fire,  the  same  to  be  under  con- 
trol of  the  fireman.  The  dampers  should  also  be  so 
constructed  that  the  supply  of  air  through  the  grates 
could  be  regulated  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  fire.  A 
light  fire  could  often  be  carried  if  the  fireman  could 
restrict  the  air  to  the  exact  volume  wanted.  If  greater 
attention  were  directed  to  this  part  of  locomotive  con- 
struction, firemen  would  feel  more  encouraged  to  find 
out  what  supply  of  air  best  suited  a  fire  for  the. 
economical  combustion  of  coal. 

A  good  brick  arch  when  properly  cared  for  is  a  very 
valuable  aid  to  economical  combustion.  The  great 
mass  of  hot  brick  helps  to  maintain  the  temperature 
of  the  fire-box  even,  and  is  often  the  means  of  raising 
gases  to  the  igniting-temperature  before  they  pass  into 
the  flues.  Projected  as  it  is  into  the  middle  of  the 
fire-box,  it  lengthens  the  journey  of  part  of  the  fire- 
gases  and  acts  as  a  mixer  of  the  elements  that  must 
combine  to  effect  combustion. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

• 

STEAM    AND   MOTIVE   POWER. 

IN  the  previous  chapter  we  have  mentioned  that 
the  heat  value  of  coal  is  measured  by  the  number  of 
heat-units  it  contains,  and  that  each  heat-unit  repre- 
sents 772  foot-pounds  of  work,  or  the  energy  required 
to  raise  772  pounds  one  foot.  According  to  the 
figures  given,  each  pound  of  coal  contains  an  enormous 
amount  of  possible  work  energy.  The  operating  of 
the  locomotive,  and  of  all  other  steam-engines,  is  a 
process  of  transforming  the  heat  energy  of  coal  into 
mechanical  work.  In  some  kinds  of  engines  driven 
by  hot  air  or  gas  the  operation  of  converting  heat 
into  work  is  done  without  the  use  of  steam.  A 
greater  proportion  of  the  heat  energy  can  be  utilized 
in  that  way;  but  there  are  mechanical  obstacles  which 
prevent  such  systems  from  being  used  where  much 
power  is  required. 

CONVENIENCE    OF   STEAM    FOR   CONVERTING   HEAT 
INTO   WORK. 

Steam,  the  vapor  of  water,  has  been  found  the  most 
convenient  medium  for  transforming  the  energy  of 

305 


306  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE   RUNNING. 

coal  into  the  useful  work  of  pulling  railroad  trains, 
and  of  driving  other  kinds  of  machinery.  Water  has 
the  greatest  heat-absorbing  capacity  of  any  known 
substance,  which  makes  it  an  excellent  means  of  con- 
verting heat  into  work;  but  it  has  some  peculiarities 
which  readily  lead  to  great  loss  of  energy  if  not  care- 
fully controlled.  If  we  follow  the  circle  of  operations 
which  the  burning  of  coal  for  steam-making  purposes 
sets  going,  we  shall  meet  at  every  move  heat  losses 
which  show  us  why  so  small  a  portion  of  the  entire 
heat  energy  of  coal  reaches  the  crank-pins  that  turn 
the  wheels  of  the  engine.  But  an  intelligent  study  of 
the  losses  will  also  help  an  engineer  to  restrain  them 
to  the  lowest  possible  limit. 

HEAT    USED    IN    EVAPORATING   WATER. 

Suppose  we  take  one  pound  of  water  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  40°  Fahr.,  and  apply  he*at  to  it  in  an  open 
vessel.  If  we  put  a  thermometer  in  the  water,  we 
shall  find  that  the  temperature  will  rise  rapidly  till  it 
reaches  212°,  the  boiling-point  at  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere.  Then  the  mercury  stops  rising,  but  the 
water  keeps  absorbing  the  heat  and  turning  into  steam. 
It  takes  rather  more  than  5  £  times  the  quantity  of  heat 
to  evaporate  the  whole  of  the  pound  of  water  into 
steam  that  it  took  to  raise  the  temperature  from  the 
tank  temperature  to  the  boiling-point;  for,  although 
it  is  not  shown  by  the  thermometer,  the  converting  of 
the  pound  of  water  from  the  boiling-point  into  steam 
uses  up  965.7  heat-units,  that  being  called  the  latent 
heat  of  steam  at  atmospheric  pressure.  In  raising  the 


STEAM  AND    MOTIVE   POWER.  307 

water  to  the  boiling-point — from  40°  to  212° — 172 
heat-units  were  used,  and  in  vaporizing  the  water 
965.7  units,  making  in  all  1137.7  heat-units,  which 
are  expended  in  evaporating  one  pound  of  water  under 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  alone,  which  is  14.7 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Steam  formed  under  this 
light  pressure  fills  1644  times  the  space  occupied  by 
the  water  it  was  made  from.  The  volume  of  steam 
varies  nearly  inversely  as  the  pressure,  so  that  when 
the  steam  is  generated  under  the  pressure  of  two 
atmospheres  it  fills  only  822  times  the  space  that  the 
water  did.  Every  step  in  the  increase  of  pressure 
reduces  the  volume  of  the  steam  in  like  proportion. 
Steam  at  150  pounds  per  square  inch  gauge-pressure 
is  only  173  times  the  volume  of  the  water.  Steam 
gauge-pressure  is  the  pressure  above  the  atmosphere; 
absolute  pressure  is  reckoned  from  the  vacuum-line. 

LITTLE    EXTRA   HEAT   NEEDED    FOR    MAKING   HIGH- 
PRESSURE    STEAM. 

If  the  pound  of  water,  instead  of  being  left  to  boil 
in  an  open  vessel,  had  been  put  into  a  boiler  where  a 
pressure  of  165  pounds  absolute  was  put  upon  it,  that 
being  equal  to  a  gauge-pressure  of  150  pounds,  the 
result  would  have  been  different.  When  heat  was 
now  applied,  the  mercury  would  keep  rising  till  the 
temperature  of  365.7°  was  reached  before  the  water 
would  begin  to  boil.  To  raise  it  to  the  boiling-point 
under  this  pressure,  330.4  heat-units  would  be  put  in 
the  water,  and  then  the  addition  of  855.1  more  heat- 
units  would  convert  the  whole  pound  of  water  into 


308  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

steam,  the  total  expenditure  of  heat  being  1185.5 
heat-units.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  while  the 
generating  of  steam  at  atmospheric  pressure,  which 
gives  no  capacity  to  speak  of  for  doing  work,  calls  for 
an  expenditure  of  1137.7  heat-units,  raising  the  steam 
to  the  high  gauge-pressure  of  150  pounds  takes  only 
1185.5  heat-units.  Steam  of  100  pounds  gauge-pres- 
sure uses  up  1 177  heat-units,  so  that  it  takes  very  little 
more  heat  to  raise  the  steam  to  the  higher  pressure 
where  it  has  the  power  of  doing  much  more  work  than 
to  the  lower  pressures.  A  study  of  these  facts  will 
show  why  it  is  most  economical  to  use  steam  of  high 
pressure. 

CONDITIONS    OF   STEAM. 

Steam  formed  in  ordinary  boilers,  where  only  suffi- 
cient heat  is  applied  to  evaporate  the  water,  is  called 
saturated -steam.  It  is  also  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
dry  steam  or  anhydrous  steam.  Saturated  steam 
contains  only  just  sufficient  heat  to  maintain  it  in  a 
gaseous  condition,  and  the  least  abstraction  of  heat 
causes  a  portion  of  the  steam  to  fall  back  into  water, 
when  it  loses  its  power  of  doing  work.  This  is  why 
it  is  important  that  steam  cylinders  and  passages 
should  be  well  protected  from  cold.  The  condensa- 
tion of  steam  that  goes  on  in  badly  lagged  cylinders 
wastes  a  great  deal  of  fuel. 

When  heat  is  applied  to  steam  that  is  not  in  con- 
tact with  water,  the  steam  absorbs  more  heat  and  is 
said  to  be  superheated.  Superheated  steam  has  a 
greater  energy  than  saturated  steam  in  proportion  to 


STEAM  A/fD    MOTIVE   POWER.  309 

the  amount  of  heat  added.  The  practical  advantage 
of  superheated  steam  is  that  it  does  not  turn  into 
water  in  the  cylinder  so  readily  as  saturated  steam. 

METHODS    OF    USING    STEAM. 

Having  got  steam  raised  to  150  pounds  gauge- 
pressure,  which  is  almost  165  pounds  absolute,  the 
next  move  is  to  use  it  to  the  best  advantage,  so  that 
the  greatest  possible  amount  of  work  will  be  got  out 
of  every  pound  of  steam  generated.  In  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, the  higher  the  temperature  of  steam 
admitted  into  the  cylinders  of  a  steam-engine,  and  the 
lower  the  temperature  at  which  it  is  passed  out  by  the 
exhaust,  the  greater  will  be  the  economy,  if  the  re- 
duction of  temperature  has  been  due  to  the  conver- 
sion of  heat  into  mechanical  work. 

That  the  steam  passed  into  the  cylinders  may  be 
used  to  the  best  possible  advantage,  the  ordinary  prac- 
tice is  to  cause  the  expansive  force  of  the  steam  to  do 
all  the  work  practicable.  As  has  been  already  men- 
tioned in  a  former  chapter,  high-pressure  steam  is  like 
a  powerful  spring  put  under  compression,  and  is  ever 
ready  to  stretch  out  when  its  force  is  directed  against 
anything  movable.  In  that  way  it  pushes  the  piston 
when  the  valve  is  cutting  off  admission  of  steam  before 
the  end  of  the  stroke  is  reached.  We  shall  try  to  show 
how  such  practice  is  economical. 

THE    STEAM-ENGINE    INDICATOR. 

To  find  out  what  is  going  on  in  the  inside  of  the 
cylinders  of  an  engine,  to  show  accurately  how  the 


310 


LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE   RUNNING. 


steam  is  distributed,  the  use  of  the  steam-engine  indi- 
cator is  necessary.  The  indicator  consists  essentially 
of  a  small  steam-cylinder,  whose  under  side  is  con- 


nected by  pipes  to  the 
main  cylinder  of  the  en- 
gine under  inspection. 
Inside  the  indicator-cylin- 
der is  a  nicely  fitting 
piston,  whose  upper  move- 
ment is  resisted  by  a  spring 
of  known  strength.  The. 
piston  -  rod  passes  up 
through  the  top  of  the 
indicator-cylinder;  audits 
extremity  is  connected  with 
FIG.  44.  mechanism  for  operating  a 

pencil,  and  marking  on  a  card  a  diagram  whose  lines 
coincide  with  the  movement  of  the  indicator-piston. 


STEAM  AND    MOTIVE   POWER.  .311 

Fig.  44  gives  perspective  and  sectional  views  of  the 
Tabor  indicator,  an  instrument  well  adapted  for  ap- 
plication to  locomotives.  The  card  to  be  marked  is 
fastened  in  the  paper  drum  attached  to  the  indicator. 
This  drum  receives  a  circular  motion  from  a  cord  which 
is  operated  by  the  cross-head  of  the  locomotive,  and  the 
connection  is  so  arranged  that  the  drum  will  begin  to 
move  round  just  as  the  main  piston  begins  its  stroke. 
The  circular  motion  of  the  drum  is  continued  till  the 
piston  reaches  the  end  of  its  stroke,  when  the  drum 
reverses  its  movement,  and  returns  to  the  exact  point 
from  which  it  started.  Now  the  indicator-cylinder 
being  in  communication  with  the  main  cylinder,  when 
the  latter  begins  to  take  steam,  the  pressure  will  be 
applied  to  the  indicator-piston,  which  was  pushed 
upward,  at  the  same  time  transmitting  its  movement 
to  the  pencil.  The  indicator-piston  will  rise  and  fall 
in  accordance  with  the  steam-pressure  in  the  cylinder: 
and  the  circular  movement  of  the  drum  coinciding  with 
the  cross-head  movement,  the  pencil  will  describe  a 
diagram  which  represents  the  pressure  inside  the  main 
cylinder  at  the  various  points  of  the  stroke. 

THE    INDICATOR-DIAGRAM. 

Fig.  45  is  a  very  good  diagram  taken  from  a  loco- 
motive cutting  off  at  about  37  per  cent  of  the  stroke 
and  running  at  150  revolutions  per  minute.  A  is  the 
atmospheric  line  traced  before  steam  is  admitted  to 
the  indicator.  Fis  the  vacuum-line  traced  according 
to  measurement,  14.7  pounds  below  the  atmospheric 
line.  DE  is  the  admission-line,  D  being  the  point 


312  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE   RUNNING. 

where  the  valve  opens  to  admit  steam.  EF  is  the 
steam-line,  beginning  at  the  point  of  change  in  direc- 
tion of  the  admission-line.  The  steam-line  in  this 
diagram  drops  down  before  the  point  of  cut-off  is 
reached,  through  the  steam  admission  not  being  rapid 
enough  to  keep  it  up.  FG  is  the  expansion-line  traced 
after  the  steam  is  cut  off.  At  the  point  G  the  exhaust 
takes  place,  and  the  exhaust-line  is  from  G  to  the  end 


FIG.  45. 

of  the  stroke.  HI  is  the  line  of  counter-pressure,  and 
is  high  or  low  according  to  the  quantity  of  steam  left 
in  the  cylinder  by  the  exhaust.  The  use  of  small 
nozzles  always  causes  a  high  counter-pressure  line. 
The  compression-line  begins  at  /,  the  point  where  the 
valve  closes,  and  runs  up  to  D,  the  pressure  rising  as 
the  steam  left  in  the  cylinder,  after  the  valve  closes, 
gets  pressed  by  the  piston  into  small  space. 

For  an  exhaustive  and  easily  understood  treatise  on 
the  indicator  our  readers, are  referred  to  Hemenway's 
"  Indicator  Practice  and  Steam-engine  Economy," 
published  by  John  Wiley  and  Sons,-  New  York. 


STEAM  AND    MOTIVE  POWER. 


313 


PRACTICAL    ILLUSTRATION    OF    STEAM-USING. 

Suppose  the  steam   in   our  boiler  is   raised  to    165 

pounds    absolute    pressure,    and    we    apply  it   under 

different  conditions  to  do  work   in   the   cylinder  ZZ 

shown  in  Fig.  46,  which  is  16  inches  diameter  and  has 


ATMOSPHERIC  LINE*** 


FIG.  46. 

a  stroke  of  24  inches.  The  diagram  above  the  cylin- 
der represents  the  action  of  steam  in  the  cylinder. 
The  vertical  lines  represent  the  steam  at  different 


314  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

points  of  the  piston's  stroke.  If  the  cylinder  were 
filled  with  steam  at  boiler-pressure  during  the  entire 
stroke  of  the  piston,  the  diagram  of  work  would 
resemble  the  rectangle  ACEB.  Using  the  steam  in 
this  way  is  impracticable,  but  an  approximation  to  it 
is  possible,  and  it  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  subject. 
Ignoring  the  quantity  needed  to  fill  the  clearance- 
spaces,  the  steam  from  one  pound  of  water,  which  is 
called  a  pound  of  steam,  would  just  be  sufficient  to  fill 

the  cylinder  once. 

* 

CURVE    OF    EXPANDING   STEAM. 

Instead  of  permitting  the  steam  to  follow  the  piston 
unimpeded  during  the  whole  stroke,  we  will  cut  it  off 
at  6  inches  or  one  quarter  stroke,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration  'Fig.  46,  where  the  valve  Y  is  closing  the 
port  yt  just  as  the  piston  X  has  moved  one  quarter  the 
stroke.  The  piston  will  now  be  pushed  the  remainder 
of  the  stroke  by  the  expansive  force  of  the  steam,  the 
latter  falling  in  pressure  as  the  space  to  be  filled  in- 
creases, and  obeying  what  is  called  Mariotte's  law, 
the  pressure  varying  inversely  as  the  volume.  By  the 
time  the  piston  has  moved  to  half  stroke,  the  steam  is 
filling  twice  the  space  it  was  in  when  cut-off  took 
place,  and  accordingly  its  pressure  has  fallen  to  the 
point  b,  which  represents  82.5  pounds  to  the  square 
inch.  At  the  end  of  the  stroke,  when  release  takes 
place,  the  pressure  has  fallen  to  41.25  pounds.  We 
find  by  calculation  that  the  average  pressure  'on  the 
piston  when  the  steam  was  cut  off  at  quarter  stroke 
was  98.42  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  In  this  case 


STEAM  AND    MOTIVE  POWER.  315 

just'one  quarter  the  quantity  of  steam  was  drawn  from 
the  boiler  that  was  taken  when  steam  followed  full 
stroke,  yet  with  the  small  quantity  of  steam  the 
average  pressure  on  the  piston  was  considerably  more 
than  half  of  what  it  was  when  four  times  the  volume 
of  steam  was  used. 

The  description  of  the  action  of  the  steam  does  not 
represent  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  what  actually 
takes  place;  but  it  gives  the  facts  closely  enough  to 
indicate  how  steam  can  be  saved  or  wasted. 

EFFECTS    OF    HIGH    INITIAL   AND    LOW    TERMINAL 
PRESSURE. 

All  engineers  who  have  given  the  economical  use  of 
steam  intelligent  study  agree  that  the  proper  way  to 
use  steam  in  a  cylinder  is  to  get  it  in  as  near  boiler- 
pressure  as  possible,  so  that  the  greatest  possible  ratio 
of  expansion  may  be  obtained  while  doing  the  neces- 
sary work.  Where  this  practice  is  not  followed,  the 
steam  is  used  wastefully.  Locomotives  that  are  run 
with  the  throttle  partly  closed,  when  by  notching  the 
links  back  it  could  be  used  full  open,  are  throwing 
away  part  of  the  fuel-saving  advantages  that  high 
pressure  offers. 

For  this  practice  the  engineers  are  not  in  every  case 
to  blame,  for  many  locomotives  are  constructed  with 
valve  motion  so  imperfectly  designed  that  the  engines 
will  not  run  freely  when  they  are  linked  close  up. 
With  the  small  nozzles  made  necessary  to  force  the 
steam-making  in  small  boilers,  the  back  cylinder-pres- 
sure is  so  great  that  the  high  compression,  resulting 


316  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

from  an  early  valve-closure,  prevents  the  engine  from 
running  at  the  speed  required. 

From  whatever  cause  it  originates,  the  practice  of 
running  with  the  throttle  partly  closed  causes  much 
waste  of  fuel.  A  few  examples  will  be  given: 

The  diagram  shown  in  Fig.  47  was  taken  from  a 
locomotive  running  at  192  revolutions  per  minute. 
The  boiler-pressure  was  145  pounds,  and  the  initial 
pressure  on  this  card  is  136  pounds.  This  high  cylin- 
der-pressure was  obtained  by  keeping  the  throttle- 
valve  full  open.  The  driving-wheels  were  68  inches 
diameter,  and  the  engine  was  running  close  on  forty 


Af.KP.51 


FIG.  47. 

miles  an  hour  and  was  developing,  with  i8X 24-inch 
cylinders,  sufficient  power  to  haul  a  train  weighing  300 
tons  at  the  rate  of  fifty  miles  an  hour.  Steam  was 
cut  off  at  about  seven  inches  of  the  stroke,  expanded 
down  to  25  pounds  above  the  atmospheric  line,  and 
showed  an  average  back-pressure  of  4  pounds.  The 


STEAM  AND    MOTIVE   POWER. 


317 


work  was  done  using  at  the  rate  of  21.5   pounds  per 
horse-power  per  hour — very  economical  work. 

Diagram  Fig.  48  shows  about  the  same  power  as 
the  other  one;  but  it  was  taken  with  the  steam  partly 
throttled,  and  cutting  off  at  io£  inches.  In  this  case 
it  will  be  noted  that  the  initial  pressure  is  only  IO2 
pounds,  that  the  terminal  pressure  is  31  pounds  above 
the  atmosphere,  and  that  the  counter-pressure  is  7 
pounds.  In  this  case  the  work  is  done  by  using  steam 


M.KP.W.Q 


FIG.  48. 

at  the  rate  of  25.8  pounds  per  horse-power  per  hour, 
which  is  1 6. 6  per  cent  more  steam  than  was  used  with 
the  other  way  of  working.  There  was  no  reason  what- 
ever for  working  the  engine  in  this  manner,  except  the 
careless  practice  that  some  runners  get  into. 

A  still  worse  case  is  shown  by  the  diagram  Fig.  49. 
Here  the  engine,  which  was  running  at  176  revolutions 
per  minute,  was  worked  cutting  off  at  half  stroke,  and 
the  average  steam-pressure  kept  down  by  throttling. 


LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 


Consequently  the  initial  pressure  is  low,  the  terminal 
pressure  and  the  back-pressure  high.  This  condition 
of  working  calls  for  the  use  of  a  large  volume  of  steam 
to  perform  the  work.  The  initial  pressure  is  109 
pounds,  the  terminal  pressure  45  pounds,  and  the 
back-pressure  n  pounds.  The  engine  while  working 
this  way  used  steam  at  the  rate  of  32  pounds  per 
horse-power  per  hour,  or  33  per  cent  more  than  was 
used  in  the  first  case.  These  are  examples  taken  from 


BOILER  PRESSURE 


M.  E.  P.  57.6 


FIG.  49. 

the  ordinary  working  of  locomotives.  They  are  no 
mere  theories.  They  are  the  record  of  accurate 
measurements  and  are  as  trustworthy  as  the  indications 
of  the  steam-gauge.  Using  33  per  cent  more  steam 
than  what  is  absolutely  necessary  is  just  throwing 
away  one-third  of  the  coal  put  into  the  fire-box. 

To  put  the  matter  in  a  more  concrete  form:  If  the 
engine  from  which  diagram  Fig.  47  was  taken  was 
running  33.3  miles  to  the  ton  of  coal,  only  27.7  miles 
to  the  ton  would  be  made  when  usingthe  steam  shown 


STEAM  AND    MOTIVE  POWER.  3176 

in  diagram  Fig.  48  and  only  22.3  miles  when  diagram 
Fig.  49  was  the  record  of  the  steam  consumed. 

COMPOUND    LOCOMOTIVES. 

There  are  some  disadvantages  to  working  with  wide 
extremes  of  pressure  in  a  cylinder.  The  temperature 
tends  to  change  with  changes  of  pressure,  and  this 
leads  to  loss  through  condensation  of  the  steam  in  the 
cylinder.  In  the  working  of  the  simple  engine  we 
have  been  dealing  with,  where  steam  of  165  pounds 
absolute  pressure  was  used,  the  steam  enters  the 
cylinder  at  about  365°  Fahr.,  and  escapes  close  to 
atmospheric  pressure  at  a  temperature  of  about  220°. 
The  metal  of  the  cylinder  inclines  to  maintain  an  even 
temperature  at  some  average  point  between  the  high 
admission  and  the  low  exhaust  temperatures.  When 
the  steam  enters  the  cylinder  it  goes  into  a  compara- 
tively cool  chamber,  and  the  metal  of  the  cylinder 
walls  and  heads  draws  some  heat  from  the  incoming 
steam.  The  portion  of  the  steam  robbed  of  its  heat 
becomes  spray,  and  helps  to  dampen  the  steam  that 
continues  to  pass  into  the  cylinder.  As  the  events  of 
the  stroke  go  on,  and  release  of  pressure  takes  place 
after  the  opening  of  the  exhaust-port,  the  steam 
which  became  condensed  in  the  beginning  of  the 
stroke  is  ready  to  flash  back  into  steam  under  the 
release  of  pressure.  If  this  happens  as  the  steam  is 
passing  into  the  exhaust-port,  it  draws  heat  from  the 
cylinder-metal  to  aid  in  the  act  of  vaporization,  the 
whole  of  this  heat  being  carried  up  the  chimney.  The 
heat  thus  carried  away  from  the  cylinder-metal  has  to 


318  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

be  returned  by  the  incoming  steam  of  next  stroke,  and 
causes  the  initial  condensation  spoken  of.  Compres- 
sion helps  to  prevent  condensation  by  heating  the 
cylinder  at  the  end  where  steam  is  about  to  enter. 

Another  disadvantage  of  the  locomotive  cylinder  is 
that  the  opportunities  for  using  the  steam  expansively 
are  very  limited. 

To  provide  a  remedy  for  the  losses  due  to  cylinder 
condensation,  and  to  provide  better  means  of  using 
the  steam  expansively,  compound  locomotives  have 
been  brought  into  use.  A  compound  locomotive, 
while  expanding  the  steam  more  than  can  be  done 
with  a  simple  engine,  has  a  much  more  even  tempera- 
.ture  throughout  the  two  strokes  in  which  the  steam  is 
used.  If  there  is  condensation  and  revaporization  of 
steam  in  the  high-pressure  cylinder,  it  passes  into  the 
low-pressure  cylinder  and  is  there  used  to  do  useful 
work.  In  a  compound  engine  the  work  is  more  evenly 
distributed  throughout  the  stroke  than  in  a  simple 
engine,  consequently  the  strains  and  shocks  given  to 
the  machinery  are  less.  This  ought  to  make  the  com- 
pound a  durable  machine. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 
SIGHT-FEED   LUBRICATORS. 

THE  introduction  of  sight-feed  lubricators  for  oiling 
the  valves  and  pistons  of  locomotives  is  one  of  the  most 
important  improvements  carried  out  in  the  last  quarter 
of  the  nineteenth  century. 

EARLY    METHODS    OF   STEAM-CHEST   LUBRICATION. 

When  locomotives  were  first  put  into  service  it  was 
supposed  that  the  low-pressed  steam  employed  would 
supply  sufficient  moisture  to  lubricate  the  rubbing 
surfaces  and  prevent  cutting.  That  plan  did  not  work 
long  and  oil-cups  were  put  on  the  steam-chests.  A  de- 
cided improvement  on  the  steam-chest  cup  was  the 
placing  of  oil-cups  in  the  cab,  with  pipes  to  lead  the 
lubricant  to  the  steam-chest. 

All  those  mentioned  were  crude  methods  at  the  best. 
The  sight-feed  lubricator  was  introduced  in  the  prog- 
ress of  improvement,  and  appealled  so  strongly  to 
those  who  appreciated  the  lubrication  requirements  of 
slide-valves  and  pistons  that  it  soon  became  a  recog- 
nized necessity  of  a  properly  equipped  locomotive. 

For  several  years  the  merits  of  the  sight-feed  lubri- 
cator for  locomotives  were  more  apparent  than  real. 

3J9 


320  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

One  watching  the  regulated  number  of  oil-drops  pass- 
ing each  minute  from  the  lubricator  into  the  oil-pipe 
naturally  supposed  that  the  same  number  of  drops  were 
passing  with  the  same  regularity  into  the  steam-chest. 

MISTAKES   ABOUT   ACTION    OF    SIGHT    LUBRICATORS. 

There  is  now  reason  for  believing  that  a  great  part 
of  the  time  the  oil  kept  dropping  into  the  oil-pipes, 
which  acted  as  reservoirs,  until  a  reduction  of  steam 
in  the  steam-chest  permitted  the  steam  passing  through 
the  lubricator  to  overcome  the  pressure  in  the  steam- 
chest  and  force  the  oil  into  that  chest. 

The  principle  of  the  sight-feed  lubricator  is  that 
water  condensed  from  a  steam  connection  with  the 
boiler  passes  below  a  body  of  oil  standing  in  the  oil- 
chamber,  and  owing  to  the  lighter  specific  gravity  of 
the  oil  pushes  out  a  drop  of  oil  for  every  drop  of  water 
that  passes  into  the  chamber.  The  water  being  heavier 
than  oil,  naturally  keeps  the  body  of  oil  floating  upon 
it.  The  oil  that  is  forced  towards  the  oil  pipes  has 
behind  it  the  pressure  due  to  the  steam  connection 
with  the  boiler,  and  it  was  assumed  that  the  boiler 
pressure  through  the  lubricator  would  always  be  suf- 
ficient to  overcome  the  steam-chest  pressure.  In  prac- 
tice, however,  it  became  known  that  the  steam  direct 
from  the  boiler  operating  the  lubricator  was  sometimes 
so  reduced  in  pressure,  through  restricted  passages  and 
other  causes,  that  the  steam  in  the  steam-chest  opposed 
the  flow  of  oil,  and  pushed  it  upwards  from  the  steam- 
chest  instead  of  permitting  it  to  pursue  its  course. 
This  defect  did  not  become  very  apparent  until  ex- 


SIGHT-FEED    LUBRICATORS.  321 

treme  steam  boiler-pressure  became  common  practice. 
Several  special  devices  have  been  perfected  to  over- 
come this  difficulty,  particulars  of  which  will  be  given 
later. 

THE  NATHAN.  AND  THE  DETROIT  LUBRICATORS. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  sight-feed  lubricators  in 
use  for  different  kinds  of  engines;  but  for  locomotives 
there  are  only  two  varieties,  the  Nathan  and  the  Detroit, 
which  are  well  known.  Both  these  lubricators  use  the 
Gates  invention  of  the  up-feed  of  a  drop  of  oil  rising 
through  a  glass  tube  of  water  by  virtue  of  its  lighter 
gravity. 

Both  these  lubricators  feed  oil  to  the  valves  and 
pistons  whether  the  engine  is  using  steam  or  not. 
Both  require  about  the  same  handling  to  be  success- 
fully operated,  and  I  shall  ignore  all  other  makes  and 
consider  only  these  two. 

LOCATION. 

The  best  location  of  the  lubricator  to  secure  satis- 
factory results,  will  largely  depend  upon  the  style  of 
boiler  and  the  location  of  cab-fittings.  On  engines 
with  large  foot  plates  the  best  location  is  over  the 
middle  of  end  of  boiler.  In  this  position  feeds  are  in 
plain  view  of  both  enginemen,  and  irregular  working 
or  stoppage  will  be  noticed  at  once  upon  engines  where 
the  boiler  extends  well  into  or  through  the  cab ;  or 
with  Colburn  boilers,  where  the  cab  is  ahead  of  the 
fire-box,  the  lubricator  should  be  placed  with  the 
cylinder  feed-glasses  in  line  lengthwise  with  the  boiler 


322  LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINE  RUNNING. 

and  air-pump,  feed-  and  oil-glass  facing  the  engineer. 
The  bracket  supporting  the  lubricator  should  be  suf- 
ficiently heavy  to  prevent  vibration. 


STEAM-SUPPLY    AND    PIPING. 

The  early  practice  was  to  connect  the  steam-pipe 
of  the  lubricator  to  the  turret,  when  one  was  used. 
It  is  now  admitted  that  a  better  plan  is  to  make  an 
independent  connection  with  the  boiler  for  the  lubri- 
cator steam-pipe.  The  favorite  plan  now  is  to  connect 
the  steam-pipe  with  the  top  of  the  boiler  and  to  make 
it  not  less  than  £  inch  inside  diameter. 

NATHAN'S  TRIPLE-FEED  LUBRICATOR. 

An  elevation  view  of  the  Nathan  Triple-sight  Feed 
Lubricator,  known  as  Class  Bull's-eye  type,  No.  9, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  50,  and  below  are  the  names  of  the 
different  parts. 

A,  Filling-plug.  CCC,  Regulating-valves. 

D,  Water-valve.  G,  Gauge-glass. 

OO,  Hand-oilers.  R,  Reserve  glass. 

SSS,  Sight-feed  drain-valve.       W,  Waste-cock. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  APPLICATION. 

Secure  the  lubricator  to  boiler-head  or  top  of  boiler, 
in  the  usual  manner.  / 

Connect  for  steam  to  fountain  or  turret,  if  large  enough, 


SIGHT-FEED   LUBRICATORS. 


3*3 


otherwise  direct  to  boiler.  The  steam-pipe  must  not 
have  less  than  }  inch  I.  D.  when  iron  pipe  is  used,  and 
not  less  than  f  inch  I.  D.  when  copper  pipe  is  used. 
Steam-valves  and  their  shanks  must  have  openings  fully 
in  accordance  with  these  dimensions. 


Oil-pipes  must  have  a  continuous  fall  towards  the 
steam-chest,  without  any  "pockets"  in  them. 


324  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  USE. 

Fill  the  cup  with  clea-.,  strained  oil  through  filling 
plug  A,  and  immediately  after  filling,  open  water-valve 
D.  Open  steam-valve  (not  shown),  wait  until  sight- 
feed  chambers  are  filled  with  water,  then  start  and  regu- 
late the  feed  by  opening  regulating-valves  C  more  or  less, 
according  to  the  feed  desired. 

To  Stop  Either  of  the  Feeds. — Close  the  respective 
regulating-valve  C. 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  LOCOMOTIVE  LUBRICATORS. 

.  The  proper  manner  of  applying  and  operating  loco- 
motive lubricators,  in  a  general  way  so  well  understood, 
that  when  applied  and  operated  in  accordance  with  this 
general  understanding,  they  perform  their  functions 
in  most  cases  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  Nevertheless 
I  do  not  consider  it  out  of  place  to  enumerate  a  few  brief 
points,  which  users  of  lubricators  should  keep  in 
mind. 

Steam-pipes. — Before  connecting  the  steam-pipe  to 
the  lubricator,  especially  when  it  is  an  iron  pipe,  it  should 
be  blown  out  thoroughly,  to  prevent  scale  and  chips 
from  being  blown  into  the  lubricator  and  there  to  clog 
up  the  pipes  and  other  passages. 

Sizes  of  Steam-pipes  must  not  be  less  than  called  for 
in  the  "directions  for  application." 

Steam-valves  used  in  connection  with  lubricators  must 
have  openings  fully  in  accordance  with  the  sizes  of 


OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


LUBRICATORS.  325 

pipes.  Pipes  of  proper  size,  and  steam-valves  with  im- 
proper openings  in  the  valve-seat  or  in  the  shank,  will 
not  work  well  together. 

Steam  should  be  taken  from  highest  part  of  boiler, 
and  at  a  point  where  dry  steam  may  be  obtained,  using 
(when  necessary)  a  dry  pipe  for  the  purpose.  Turrets 
or  fountains  are  often  not  large  enough  to  supply  all 
drains  made  upon  them.  Do  not  allow  muddy  water 
to  get  into  the  lubricator.  It  will  clog  the  passages, 
and  cut  the  valve-seats,  causing  them  to  leak. 

Oil-pipes  must  have  a  good  steady  fall  from  lubricator 
toward  the  steam-chest,  to  prevent  the  forming  of  water- 
traps.  Oil  will  float  upward  through  water  but  not 
downward. 

Irregularity  in  the  feed  of  lubricators  is  usually  due 
to  enlarged  openings  in  the  choke-plugs.  The  remedy 
for  this  trouble  is  to  use  choke-plugs  of  standard  size, 
and  to  remove  them  as  soon  as  they  fail  to  maintain  the 
regularity  of  the  feed. 

The  restriction  ^f  the  live-steam  supply  to  the  lubri- 
cator may  also  cause  irregular  feeding.  Have  the  steam- 
valve  wide  open.  If  there  is  reason  to  suspect  a  re- 
stricted steam-supply  from  other  causes,  examine  the 
steam-pipe,  equalizing  tubes,  and  equalizing  steam 
passages  for  stoppages  from  scale,  torn  gaskets, 
etc. 

Filling. — The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  the 
filling  of  the  lubricator,  to  prevent  foreign  matter  of  any 
kind  from  passing  into  the  lubricator  with  the  oil.  To 
prevent  this  the  oil  should  be  thoroughly  strained  before 
using  it. 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 


Cleaning. — In  cleaning  out  lubricators  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  occasionally  immerse  them  in  a  lye  bath.  Some 
grades  of  oils  leave  a  residue  behind  which,  under  high 
temperature,  seems  to  "  bake"  into  a  hard,  gummy  scale, 


FIG.  51. — DETROIT  TRIPPLE-FEED  LUBRICATOR. 

that  cannot  be  removed  by  blowing  steam  through  the 
passages.  Strong  soap  water  will  sometimes  dissolve 
this  gum,  and  tend  to  keep  the  glasses  clean. 


SIGHT-FEED  LUBRICATOR.  327 

Feed-nozzles  Stopped  Up. — In  this  case  close  the  water- 
valve  and  all  regulating-valves,  with  the  exception  of 
the  defective  one,  which  should  be  opened  wide.  Open 
the  waste  cock  at  the  bottom  of  the  lubricator.  With 
the  steam- valve  open,  the  contents  of  the  glass  and  the 
obstruction  will  be  blown  into  the  cup  and  out  through 
the  waste  cock. 

Choke-plugs  Stopped  Up. — Proceed  as  when  cleaning 
feed-nozzles,  and  in  addition  close  the  steam-valve  of 
the  lubricator,  and  open  throttle-valve  of  engine.  This 
will  blow  steam  from  the  steam-chest  back  through  the 
choke-plugs,  and  blow  the  obstruction  into  the  sight- 
chamber  and  leave  the  choke  passage  free. 

Disappearance  of  Oil  from  Reservoir. — This  may  be 
caused:  i.  By  the  water-pipe  (leading  from  the  con- 
denser to  the  oil-reservoir)  becoming  split  or  loose.  2. 
By  cracks  developing  in  the  passages,  near  the  top  of 
the  oil-reservoir,  allowing  oil  to  feed  directly  into  the 
delivery  arms  or  into  the  condenser  and  from  there 
(through  the  equalizing  pipe)  into  the  tallow-pipes 
without  passing  visibly  through  the  glasses.  Such  de- 
fects may  develop  through  careless  handling  or  from 
freezing. 

DETROIT  TRIPLE-FEED  LUBRICATOR. 

The  purpose  of  the  Detroit  Lubricator  Company  in 
developing  the  sight-feed  lubricators  that  eventuated  in 
the  bull's-eye  pattern,  was  to  produce  one  in  which  the 
sight-feed  glass  would  not  break  under  any  circumstances. 
This  aim  being  reached  all  danger,  delay  arising  from 
the  bursting  of  lubricator  glasses,  have  been  removed. 


328  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

The  different  parts  of  Detroit  No.  21,  triple-feed 
lubricator  shown  in  our  engraving  are: 

F,  Condenser. 
At  Oil-reservoir. 
O,  Filler-plug. 

G,  Drain-valve. 

TTT,  Sight-feed  drain  stems. 
D,  Water-feed  valve. 
By  Steam-valve. 
EE,  Feed-regulating  valves  to  right  and  left-hand 

cylinders. 

L,  Feed-regulating  valve  to  air-pump. 
WW,  Coupling  to  right-  and  left-hand  cylinders. 
R,  Coupling  to  air-pump. 
C,  Steam  connection. 
JJ,  Auxiliary  oilers. 

DIRECTIONS   FOR   OPERATING. 

Steam  for  lubricator  should  be  taken  from  turret  if 
large  enough,  or  from  dome  through  an  independent  dry 
pipe  of  i -inch  iron  pipe  size  or  its  equivalent. 

When  the  lubricator  is  first  applied,  blow  out  thor- 
oughly, then  close  all  the  valves. 

To  Fill. — Remove  filter-plug  O  and  fill  the  reservoir 
with  clean,  strained  oil. 

Note. — If  there  is  not  sufficient  oil  to  do  so,  always 
use  water  to  make  up  the  required  quantity.  This  will 
enable  the  feeds  to  start  promptly. 

Steam-valve. — The  regular  boiler- valve  should  be  left 
wide  open,  and  the  steam-valve  B  at  top  of  condenser 


SIGHT-FEED  LUBRICATOR.  329 

must  also  be  kept  wide  open  while  the  locomotive  is  in 
service. 

To  Start  Lubricator. — i.  Be  sure  that  the  regular 
boiler-valve  is  open.  Then  open  steam-valve  B  at  top 
of  condenser  wide  open  and  keep  wide  open  while  lubri- 
cator is  in  operation.  Allow  sufficient  time  for  condenser 
and  sight-feed  glasses  to  fill  with  water.  2.  Open  water- 
valve  D.  3.  Regulate  flow  of  oil  to  right  and  left  cylin- 
ders by  valves  EE  and  to  air-pump  by  valve  L. 

To  Operate  Auxiliary  Oilers. — See  that  valve  H  is 
closed.  Then  open  valve  X  and  fill  body  of  oiler.  Close 
X  after  filling  open  valve  H. 

To  Re-fill. — Always  close  valves  EE  and  L  in  advance 
of  valve  D.  Open  drain-plug  G,  then  filler-plug  O. 
Re-fill  and  proceed  as  before. 

If  at  any  time  it  becomes  necessary  to  fill  the  lubricator 
with  cold  oil  and  the  engine  will  remain  out  of  service 
for  some  hours,  do  not  fail  to  turn  on  slight  steam  pressure 
from  the  boiler  and  open  valve  D  in  order  to  prevent 
excessive  pressure  from  expansion  of  the  oil. 

Blowing  Out. — Blow  out  lubricator  once  a*  week  or 
oftener  if  necessary. 

Getting  New  or  Re-built  Locomotive  Ready  for  Service. 
— In  getting  a  new  or  re-built  locomotive  ready  for 
service,  disconnect  oil-pipes  at  steam-chest,  and  blow 
out  thoroughly  both  oil-pipes  and  automatic  steam- 
chest  valves;  also  disconnect  coupling  to  air-pump  and 
see  that  choke  is  free.  Do  this  several  times  while  getting 
the  engine  ready  for  service. 


33P  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

MICHIGAN  BULL'S-EYE  LUBRICATOR. 

The  Michigan  Lubricator  Company  of  Detroit  whose 
well  known  bull's-eye  lubricator  is  here  illustrated,  have 
introduced  a  useful  addition  to  the  apparatus.  It  is 
extremely  simple  both  in  construction  and  operation, 
consisting  merely  of  a  ball  float  working  freely  in  a 


cage.  The  float  is  so  made  that  it  rises  and  falls  with 
the  water  level  in  the  lubricator  cup  or  reservoir,  always 
remaining  below  the  level  of  the  oil,  but  at  the  surface 
of  the  water  when  the  reservoir  contains  both  oil  and 
water,  as  it  usually  does. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION. 

FROM   WHENCE   THEY  CAME. 

THIS  catechism  for  the  examination  of  engineers  and 
firemen  to  test  their  knowledge  of  their  business,  has 
been  expanded  from  a  catechism  prepared  for  the  use 
of  officials  on  what  is  known  as  the  Vanderbilt  or  New 
York  Central  Lines.  The  railroad  officials  provided 
the  men  to  be  examined  with  a  list  of  the  questions; 
we  have  worked  out  the  answers,  and  added  other  ques- 
tions and  answers  that  are  of  general  interest. 

We  advise  men  studying  this  catechism  to  refrain  from 
committing  the  answers  to  memory,  but  to  acquire  the 
sense  of  the  answers  and  to  use  the  actual  locomotive 
as  an  aid  to  acquiring  the  desired  knowledge. 

These  questions  and  answers  have  been  worked  up 
from  a  code  prepared  by  the  Traveling  Engineers'  Asso- 
ciation, and  developed  by  various  writers  on  railroad 
machinery  matters  to  suit  changes  in  rolling  stock  and 
condition^  of  operating. 


332  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

SECTION  I. 

FIRST  YEAR  EXAMINATION. 
General  Questions. 

Q.  i.  Do  you  consider  it  essential  to  your  success  in  busi- 
ness to  abstain  from  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquors? 
Do  you  consider  it  to  your  interest  to  work  to  the  best 
of  your  ability  for  the  interest  of  your  employer,  and  be 
economical  in  the  use  of  fuel  and  supplies  ? 

A.  This  question  will  be  answered  according  to  the 
judgment  of  the  man  under  examination. 

DUTIES  OF   FIREMEN. 

Q.  2.  What  are  the  fireman's  duties  on  arrival  at  engine- 
house  previous  to  going  out  on  a  locomotive? 

A.  See  that  the  fire  is  in  the  condition  to  make  up  a 
proper  one  for  starting.  See  that  the  ash-pan  is  clean. 
Ascertain  that  the  engine  has  got  on  all  the  necessary 
tools  and  supplies,  and  that  the  engineer's  oil-cans  are 
filled. 

Q.  3.  Is  it  your  duty  to  compare  time  with  your  engineer, 
and  should  you  insist  on  seeing  all  train  orders? 

A.  I  should  consider  it  my  duty  to  compare  time  with 
the  engineer  and  insist  on  seeing  the  train  orders,  if  that 
was  the  rule  of  the  company  I  was  working  for. 

Q.  4.  Give  the  substance  of  the  various  rules  pertaining 
to  signals  as  found  in  the  Book  of  Rules  and  Regulations 
of  the  operating  department. 

A.  This  question  will  be  answered  by  describing  the 
signals  described  in  the  book  of  rules.  The  meaning  of 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.  333 

swinging-arms  and  lanterns  in  different  ways  must  be 
explained,  and  also  the  meaning  that  the  rules  attach  to 
the  station  signals  used  by  the  road. 

Q.  5.  In  addition  to  any  that  you  have  not  mentioned, 
what  else  do  you  consider  a  danger  signal? 

A.  Any  person  near  the  track  violently  waving  his 
arms  or  any  sort  of  light  would  be  regarded  as  a  danger 
signal;  also  a  fire  burning  on  the  track. 

T3E  STEAM-GAUGE. 

Q.  6.   Explain  the  principle  of  the  steam-gauge 

A.  There  are  several  kinds  of  steam  gauges,  but  all 
of  them  are  operated  on  one  of  two  principles.  When 
internal  pressure  is  applied  to  a  bent  flat  tube,  the  ten- 
dency of  the  tube  is  to  straighten  out.  That  tendency 
is  made  use  of  in  the  Bourdon  gauge,  the  necessary 
mechanism  for  operating  the  dial  needle  being  connected 
with  the  tube.  The  other  form  of  gauge  is  operated  by 
a  double  diaphragm  of  corrugated  plate.  When  pressure 
is  admitted  between  the  plates  it  forces  them  outward 
and  the  attachments  operate  the  mechanism  that  moves 
the  gauge  needle. 

Q.  7.  What  pressure  is  indicated  by  the  steam-gauge? 
What  is  meant  by  atmospheric  pressure? 

A.  The  pressure  above  the  atmospheric  pressure. 
The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  that  imposed  by  the 
body  of  air  surrounding  the  earth.  At  sea-level  it  is 
14.7  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 


334  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

HEAT   AND   STEAM. 

Q.  8.  What  is  the  source  of  power  in  a  steam-loco- 
motive ? 

A.  Steam  generated  by  heat. 

Q.  9.  What  quantity  of  water  ought  to  be  evaporated 
in  a  locomotive  boiler  to  the  pound  of  coal? 

A.  From  7  to  10  pounds.  It  is  seldom  more  than 
5  pounds. 

Q.  10.  What  is  steam,  and  how  is  it  generated  ? 

A.  The  vapor  of  water.  It  is  generated  by  the  heat 
from  the  fuel  burning  in  the  fire-box. 

Q.  ii.   At  what  temperature  does  water  boil? 

A.   On  the  level  of  the  sea  it  boils  at  212  degrees  F. 

Q.  12.  What  is  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the 
boiler  when  the  pressure  is  200  pounds? 

A.  At  200  pounds  gauge-pressure  the  temperature  of 
the  water  is  387.7  degrees  F. 

COMBUSTION  AND   FIRING. 

Q.  13.   What  is  combustion? 

A.  The  chemical  combination  of  the  carbon  in  fuel 
with  oxygen. 

Q.  14.  What  is  the  composition  of  bituminous  coal? 

A.  A  good  quality  of  bituminous  coal  contains  about 
6 1  per  cent  fixed  carbon,  about  31  per  cent  of  volatile 
matter,  known  as  hydrocarbons,  7  per  cent  of  ash,  and 
i  per  cent  of  sulphur. 

Q.  15.  What  is  carbon?  From  what  is  oxygen  ob- 
tained ? 

A.    Carbon  is  one  of  Nature's  elements.     Nearly  all 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.   335 

combustible  material,  such  as  wood  and  coal,  consists 
principally  of  carbon.  Oxygen  for  sustaining  com- 
bustion is  obtained  from  the  air. 

Q.  16.  What  per  cent  of  oxygen  is  in  the  air? 

A.   The  atmosphere  contains  20.63  Per  cent  °f  oxygen. 

Q.  17.  Is  air  necessary  for  combustion? 

A.  It  is. 

Q.  1 8.  About  how  many  cubic  feet  of  air  are  necessary 
for  the  combustion  of  a  pound  of  coal  in  a  locomotive 
fire-box  ? 

A.  It  takes  2.66  pounds  of  oxygen  to  burn  i  pound 
of  coal  into  carbon  dioxide.  It  takes  4.35  pounds  of  air 
to  supply  i  pound  of  oxygen,  therefore  it  will  take  uj 
pounds  of  air  to  provide  the  oxygen  necessary  to  burn 
each  pound  of  coal.  As  some  excess  of  air  is  necessary, 
20  pounds  of  air  should  be  admitted  to  the  fire  for  each 
pound  of  coal  to  be  burned.  One  pound  of  air  fills 
about  13  cubic  feet  at  ordinary  temperatures,  so  we  have 
13X20=260,  equal  to  260  cubic  feet  of  air  needed  for 
every  pound  of  coal  burned. 

Q.  19.  How  many  cubic  feet  of  air,  therefore,  would  be 
necessary  for  the  burning  of  a  "fire"  of  four  scoopfuls, 
assuming  each  scoopful  to  weigh  10  pounds? 

A.  For  four  scoopfuls  of  coal,  each  weighing  10  pounds, 
the  quantity  of  air  required  for  combustion  would  be 
40  X  260=  10,400  cubic  feet. 

Q.  20.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  provide  for  combustion  a 
supply  of  air  through  the  fuel  in  the  furnace? 

A.  Because  it  is  only  by  forcing  the  air  through  the 
burning  fuel  that  the  proper  mixture  of  the  gases  will  b,e 
effected. 


336  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

Q.  21.  How  can  you  prove  that  it  is  necessary  to  supply 
air  to  the  fire-box  for  combustion? 

A.  By  shutting  off  the  air  supply. 

Q.  22.  What  is  the  effect  upon  combustion  if  too  little 
air  is  supplied  through  the  fire?  If  too  much  air  is 
supplied  ? 

A.  If  too  little  air  is  supplied  the  fire  loses  activity 
and  combustion  produces  carbon  monoxide,  a  gas  with 
only  about  one-third  the  heating  properties  of  carbon 
dioxide,  the  gas  formed  when  the  supply  of  air  is  sufficient. 

If  too  much  air  is  supplied  waste  is  caused  by  heating 
the  surplus  quantity  of  air,  and  the  oversupplying  tends 
to  depress  the  fire-box  gases  below  the  igniting  tem- 
perature. 

Q.  23.  What  effect  on  combustion  has  the  closing  and 
opening  of  dampers  ? 

A.  A  closing  of  the  dampers  cuts  off  the  supply  of 
air  and  prevents  the  fire  from  receiving  its  proper  supply 
of  air.  Opening  the  dampers  permits  the  air  to  pass 
through  the  grates.  Under  some  circumstances  it  is 
better  to  keep  one  damper  closed,  unless  the  engine  is 
working  very  hard. 

Q.  24.  How  is  draft  created  through  the  fire? 

A.  By  the  current  of  air  induced  by  the  exhaust 
through  the  flues  and  smoke-stack. 

Q.  25.   Describe  a  blower  and  its  use  and  abuse. 

A.  A  blower  is  a  jet  of  steam  passed  up  the  smoke- 
stack to  induce  an  artificial  current  of  air.  Its  proper 
use  is  to  prevent  smoke  when  an  engine  is  not  work- 
ing, to  draw  the  fire  gases  away  so  that  they  do  not  pass 
into  the  cab,  and  to  stimulate  the  fire  when  necessary. 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.  337 

The  abuse  of  the  blower  is  drawing  cold  air  through 
the  tubes  or  by  forcing  the  fire  when  it  is  not 
necessary,  causing  waste  of  steam  through  the  safety- 
valves. 

Q.  26.  What  effect  is  produced  by  opening  the  fire- 
door  when  the  engine  is  being  worked  ? 

A.  It  cools  the  boiler  and  prevents  the  rapid  genera- 
tion of  steam. 

Q.  27.  What  bad  effect? 

A.  It  causes  sudden  contraction  of  the  fire-box  sheets 
and  flues,  tending  to  cause  leakage. 

Q.  28.  In  what  condition,  therefore,  should  the  fire 
be  in  order  that  the  best  results  may  be  obtained  from 
the  combustion  of  the  coal? 

A.  The  fire  ought  to  be  maintained  in  the  condition 
necessary  to  generate  the  steam  required  for  the  way 
the  engine  has  to  be  worked.  Even  firing  and  even 
temperature  go  together. 

Q.  29.  What  is  the  effect  of  putting  too  many  scoops 
of  coal  on  a  bright  fire  ?  Is  this  a  waste  of  fuel  ? 

A.  Throwing  too  much  coal  into  a  fire  at  one  time 
depresses  the  temperature  below  the  igniting-point  and 
causes  the  generation  of  smoke.  The  practice  is  waste- 
ful of  fuel. 

Q.  31.  What  effect  has  the  fire  upon  a  scoopful  of  coal 
when  it  is  placed  in  the  fire-box  ? 

A.  It  distills  the  volatile  gases  first,  then  ignites  the 
carbon  of  the  coal. 

Q.  31.  In  what  condition  should  the  fire  be  to  consume 
these  gases? 

A.  Bright  and  at  a  high  temperature. 


338  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

Q.  32.  What  is  the  temperature  of  the  fire  when  in 
this  condition  ? 

A.  About  3000  degrees  F. 

Q.  33.  How  can  the  fire  be  maintained  in  this  condi- 
tion? 

A.  By  regular  firing.  That  is,  by  keeping  up  the 
supply  of  fuel  as  nearly  as  possible  at  the  rate  it  is  burned. 

Q.  34.   What  is  black  smoke?     Is  it  combustible? 

A.  It  is  unconsumed  coal  and  can  be  prevented  by 
good  firing,  if  the  coal  is  not  too  volatile,  or  the  boiler 
forced  beyond  the  limit  where  the  gases  can  be  properly 
mixed.  It  is  combustible  when  mixed  with  air  and  kept 
at  a  high  temperature. 

Q.  35.  Have  you  made  any  effort  to  produce  smokeless 
firing  ? 

A.  Certainly  I  have. 

Q.  36.  How  can  black  smoke  be  avoided? 

A.  By  careful  firing.  With  some  qualities  of  coal 
and  a  plain  fire-box  smoke  cannot  be  entirely  prevented. 

Q.  37.  Can  the  firing  be  done  more  intelligently  if  the 
water  level  is  observed  closely?  Why? 

A .  Because  regular  'boiler  feeding  and  regular  firing 
go  together.  The  fireman  can  work  more  intelligently 
when  he  knows  that  the  boiler  is  being  fed  regularly. 

Q.  38.  What  advantage  is  it  to  the  fireman  to  know 
the  grades  of  the  road  and  the  location  of  the  stations? 

A.  This  knowledge  enables  him  to  regulate  the  firing 
to  suit  the  fluctuating  work  the  engine  will  have  to  do. 

Q.  39.  How  should  the  fire  and  water  be  managed  in 
starting  from  a  terminal  or  other  station? 

A.    The  fire  ought  to  be  made  up-  sufficiently  heavy 


EXAMINA TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    339 

to  preclude  the  necessity  for  firing  while  passing  through 
the  yards.  The  boiler  ought  to  be  as  full  of  water  as 
can  be  carried  without  priming. 

Q.  40.  What  is  the  purpose  of  a  safety-valve  on  a  loco- 
motive boiler  ?  Why  is  more  than  one  used  ? 

A.  To  relieve  the  boiler  from  over-pressure  of  steam. 
Two  safety-valves  are  used  because  one  is  sometimes 
unequal  to  the  task  of  preventing  over-pressure. 

Q.  41.  What  usually  is  the  cause  for  steam  being 
wasted  from  the  safety-valve? 

A.  Injudicious  firing,  or  want  of  co-operation  between 
engineer  and  fireman. 

It  is  frequently  due  to  want  of  co-operation  between 
the  people  who  regulate  the  movement  of  trains  and  the 
enginemen. 

Q.  42.  What  is  the  estimated  waste  of  coal  for  each 
minute  the  safety-valve  is  open? 

A.  From  15  to  20  pounds. 

A  systematic  test  was  made  of  an  engine  with  about 
1200  square  feet  of  heating-surface  and  27  square  feet 
of  grate  area  to  ascertain  the  volume  of  steam  wasted 
through  the  safety-valve.  It  was  found  to  be  91  Ibs.  of 
water  per  minute.  As  each  pound  of  coal  burned  will 
evaporate  about  6  Ibs.  of  water,  the  waste  of  coal  in 
that  case  would  be  about  15  Ibs.  per  minute. 

Q.  43.  What  should  be  done  to  prevent  waste  of  steam 
through  the  safety-valves? 

A.  The  firing  should  be  so  regulated  when  the  engine 
is  working  that  the  steam  will  not  rise  to  the  blowing-off 
point;  when  steam  has  to  be  shut  off  unexpectedly 
blowing-off  may  be  prevented  by  closing  the  dampers, 


340  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

opening  the  fire-box  door  a  little  and  keeping  the  in- 
jector going.  The  surplus  steam  may  also  be  blown 
back  into  the  water-tank. 

Q.  44.  What  should  be  the  condition  of  the  fire  on 
arriving  at  a  station  where  a  stop  is  to  be  made  ? 

A.  Bright  and  clear,  so  that  little  smoke  will  flow 
from  the  stack.  There  must  be  sufficient  fire  on  the 
grates  to  build  on  when  the  engine  is  started. 

Q.  45.  How  should  you  build  up  the  fire  when  at 
stations  in  order  to  avoid  black  smoke? 

A.  By  putting  in  small  quantities  of  coal  at  a  time  at 
short  intervals  and  permitting  the  charges  to  burn  bright. 

Q.  46.  What  should  be  the  condition  of  the  fire  when 
passing  over  the  summit  of  a  long  grade? 

A.  It  should  be  burned  down  as  low  as  the  require- 
ments of  steam-making  will  permit. 

Q.  47.  If  the  injector  is  to  be  used  after  passing  over 
summit,  how  should  the  fire  be  maintained? 

A.  The  fire  ought  to  be  maintained  bright  and  the 
blower  kept  in  use  to  create  some  circulation  of  the 
water  of  the  boiler. 

Q.  48.  Is  it  advisable  to  take  advantage  of  every  op- 
portunity to  store  in  the  boiler  as  much  water  as  possi- 
ble? 

A.  It  is. 

Q.  49.  Why  is  it  that  if  there  is  a  thin  fire  with  a  hole 
in  it,  the  steam  pressure  will  fall  at  once? 

A.  Because  cold  air  passes  through  the  hole  and  has 
a  chilling  effect  upon  the  boiler. 

Q.  50.  What  would  be  the  result  of  starting  a  heavy 
train  with  too  thin  a  fire  upon  the  grates? 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    341 

A.  Delay  for  want  of  steam. 

Q.  51.  How  deep  a  fire  should  be  carried? 

A.  It  should  be  no  deeper  than  necessary  to  make 
the  required  steam.  The  kind  of  fire-box  and  the  work 
to  be  done  would  influence  the  proper  depth  of  fire. 

Q.  52.  Where  should  the  coal,  as  a  rule,  be  placed  in 
the  fire-box? 

A.  It  ought  to  be  placed  evenly  over  the  entire  surface 
of  the  grates. 

Q.  53.   Is  rapid  firing  advisable? 

A.  No.  Not  the  rapid  firing  that  puts  a  heavy  charge 
of  fresh  coal  quickly  into  the  fire-box.  The  rapid  action 
that  puts  a  scoopful  of  coal  where  it  belongs,  having 
the  door  open  as  short  a  time  as  possible,  is  commendable. 

Q.  54.  When  and  for  what  purpose  is  the  use  of  rake 
on  the  fire -bed  allowable? 

A.  When  the  surface  of  the  fire  is  coking  so  that 
combustion  is  obstructed. 

Q.  55.  Within  what  limits  may  steam  pressure  be 
allowed  to  vary,  and  why? 

A.  When  an  engine  is  working  the  steam  pressure 
ought  to  be  kept  as  uniform  as  possible  short  of  blow- 
ing-off  pressure.  When  approaching  stations  the  steam 
pressure  should  be  reduced  sufficiently  to  prevent  blow- 
ing-off. 

Q.  56.  Is  it  advisable  to  raise  steam  rapidly? 

A.  Not  if  it  can  be  avoided  without  causing  delay. 
Rapid  raising  of  steam,  especially  from  cold  water,  puts 
destructive  strains  upon  the  boiler  sheets. 

Q.  57.  Has  improper  firing  any  tendency  to  cause  tubes 
to  leak?  How? 


342  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

A.  It  has.  Improper  firing  causes  wide  variations  in 
the  temperature  of  the  fire-box,  and  sudden  reduction  of 
temperature  causes  the  tubes  to  contract  and  leak. 

Q.  58.   What  would  you  consider  abuse  of  a  boiler? 

A.  Intermittent  firing,  causing  fluctuating  variations 
of  fire-box  temperature,  cooling  by  means  of  an  open 
fire-box  door  and  intermittent  boiler  feeding.  Feeding 
the  boiler  rapidly  when  steam  is  shut  off  abuses  the 
boiler. 

Q.  59.  How  would  you  take  care  of  a  boiler  with  leaky 
tubes  or  fire-box? 

A.  Maintain  the  temperature  as  evenly  as  possible 
by  uniform  firing  and  boiler  feeding.  I  should  avoid 
feeding  when  steam  was  shut  off. 

Q.  60.  What  are  the  advantages  of  an  arch  in  the  loco- 
motive fire-box? 

A.  It  tends  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  fire-box 
uniform;  it  prevents  cold  air  from  passing  directly  into 
the  tubes,  and  it  lengthens  the  journey  of  the  fire  gases 
on  their  way  to  the  tubes.  The  arch  acts  also  to  some 
extent  as  a  spark-arrester.  / 

Q.  61.  Why  is  it  very  important  that  coal  should  be 
broken  so  that  it  will  not  be  larger  than  an  ordinary  sized 
apple  before  being  put  into  the  fire-box? 

A.  Because  in  that  condition  it  provides  the  best  sur- 
face for  ignition  and  provides  the  proper  openings  for 
emission  and  mixture  of  the  fuel  gases. 

Q.  62.  When  and  why  should  you  wet  the  coal  in  the 
tender  ? 

A.  As  soon  as  the  supply  of  coal  has  been  put  upon 
the  tender.  The  wetting  is  done  to  keep  down  the  dust. 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    343 

It  also  tends  to  keep  the  mass  of  fine  coal  together  and 
prevents  it  from  being  drawn  into  the  tubes  by  the  suction 
of  the  exhaust. 

Q.  63.  Should  coal  be  allowed  to  lie  on  the  deck  and 
fall  out  of  the  gangway? 

A.  Certainly  not. 

Q.  64.  Do  you  understand  that  the  coal  used  on  the 
locomotive  is  property  and  represents  money  invested 
by  the  company? 

A.  I  do. 

Q.  65.  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  large  grate  sur- 
face? 

A.  It  permits  of  slower  combustion  than  would  be 
practicable  with  smaller  grate  surface,  and  slow  com- 
bustion under  proper  restrictions  promotes  economy  of 
fuel. 

Q.  66.  Why  are  the  grates  made  to  shake,  and  when 
should  they  be  shaken? 

A.  To  break  up  the  clinkers  and  ashes  that  close  up 
the  grate  openings  and  restrict  the  supply  of  air.  The 
grates  should  be  shaken  very  lightly  as  soon  as  the  fire 
shows  that  the  air  is  too  much  restricted.  With  some 
kinds  of  coal  the  grates  must  be  moved  frequently '  to 
prevent  them  from  ''sticking,"  a  condition  caused  by 
fused  clinker. 

Q.  67.  Why  should  grates  not  be  shaken  too  fre- 
quently ? 

A.  Because  good  fuel  would  be  wasted  and  the  ash 
pan  prematurely  filled,  with  danger  of  burning  grates. 

Q.  68.  Is  it  a  fireman's  duty  to  avoid  filling  up  the  ash- 
pan  too  full? 


344  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

A.  Certainly  it  is. 

Q.  69.  Is  it  permissible  to  dump  ashes  or  fire  over  road 
crossings,  switches,  or  around  stations? 

A.  It  is  not. 

Q.  70.  Is  it  objectionable  to  fill  the  tanks  too  full  or 
spill  water  at  stand-pipes  or  water-tanks? 

A.  It  is  a  very  objectionable  and  dangerous  practice, 
and  should  be  avoided. 

Q.  71.  What  are  the  duties  of  a  fireman  on  arriving  at 
a  terminal? 

A.  The  answer  to  this  question  will  vary  according 
to  the  rules  of  the  particular  road. 

Q.  72.  Is  the  engineer  responsible  for  the  fireman's 
conduct  while  on  duty  and  the  manner  in  which  the 
fireman's  duties  are  performed? 

A.  He  is. 

AIR-BRAKE  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS, 
FIRST  YEAR  EXAMINATION. 

Q.  i.   What  is  an  air-brake? 

A.  It  is  a  brake  operated  by  compressed  air,  and  re- 
quires special  mechanism  for  the  application  of  the 
power. 

Q.  2.  How  is  the  air  compressed  for  use  in  the  brake 
system  ? 

A.  By  means  of  an  air-pump,  or  compressor,  located 
at  some  convenient  place  on  the  side  of  the  locomotive 
boiler. 

Q.  3.  What  are  the  essential  parts  of  the  air-brake  as 
applied  to  a  locomotive? 


EX  AM  IN  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    345 

A.  They  are  an  air-pump  or  compressor,  an  air-pump 
governor,  a  main  reservoir,  an  engineer's  brake,  and 
equalizing  discharge  valve;  a  duplex  air  pressure  gauge, 
a  plain  triple  valve,  an  auxiliary  reservoir,  a  brake  cylin- 
der, with  a  piston  in  it,  and  the  necessary  piping  stop- 
cocks and  angle  cocks. 

Q.  4.  How  many  kinds  of  triple  valves  are  there  in 
use? 

A.   Two;   the  plain  and  the  quick-action  triples. 

Q.  5.  What  is  the  main  reservoir  used  for,  and  where 
is  it  located? 

A.  Primarily  for  the  storage  of  a  large  quantity  of 
air,  to  be  used  in  releasing  the  brakes  and  quickly  re- 
charging the  auxiliaries;  and  secondarily,  to  catch  the 
moisture,  dirt,  and  oil  which  are  pumped  in  along  with 
the  air.  It  may  be  located  in  any  convenient  place  about 
the  engine  or  tender,  but  it  is  usually  placed  under  the 
boiler,  just  back  of  the  cylinder  saddles,  or  under  the 
running  board. 

Q.  6.  What  is  the  usual  standard  train-pipe  pres- 
sure? 

A.  With  the  plain  quick- action  brake  70  Ibs.,  and  with 
the  high-speed  quick-action  brake  no  Ibs. 

Q.  7.  What  pressure  is  usually  carried  in  the  main 
reservoirs  ? 

A.  With  the  plain  brake,  90  Ibs.;  with  the  high-speed 
brake,  from  120  to  130  Ibs. 

Q.  8.  Why  is  it  important  that  all  air-brake  apparatus 
should  be  kept  tight  and  free  from  leaks? 

A.  In  order  that  the  air-brake  mechanism  may  operate 
properly  and  that  there  may  be  no  waste  of  air,  with  its 


346  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

attendant  evils,  or  any  unnecessary  work  required  of  the 
pump. 

Q.  9.  Where  does  the  air  come  from  that  operates  the 
sand-blower,  bell-ringer,  air-whistle  signal,  water-scoop, 
or  other  devices? 

A.  From  the  main  reservoir. 

Q.  10.  How  should  an  air-pump  be  started? 

A.  Very  slowly,  with  all  drain-cocks  wide  open.  After 
the  water  has  drained  away,  close  all  drain-cocks,  and 
when  a  pressure  of  35  or  40  Ibs.  has  accumulated  in  the 
main  reservoir,  open  the  pump-throttle  sufficiently  to  run 
the  pump  at  a  speed  that  wjll  maintain  the  required  pres- 
sure and  perform  the  brake  work  satisfactorily.  The 
steam  end  of  the  pump  should  be  lubricated  freely  during 
the  starting,  just  after  the  drain-cocks  are  closed. 

SECOND  YEAR  EXAMINATION. 
General  Questions. 

Q.  i.  Has  there  been  anything  in  the  past  year  to 
interfere  with  your  preparation  for  this  examination? 

A.  The  answer  to  this  question  will  depend  upon  any- 
thing interfering  or  not. 

Q.  2.  Have  there  been  any  new  signals  introduced 
during  the  year  or  any  changes  on  the  old  ones  ? 

A.  This  question  will  be  answered  according  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  candidate  about  signals. 

Q.  3.  Have  you  made  any  improvement  in  your  method 
of  firing,  and  have  you  obtained  any  better  results  econom- 
ically and  in  smokeless  firing  during  the  year? 


EXAMINA  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     347 

A.    The  answer  to  this  question  will  also  be  based  on 
the  candidate's  experience  and  progress. 


THE  LOCOMOTIVE  BOILER. 

Q.  4.   Describe  the  general  form  of  a  locomotive  boiler. 

A.  It  is  a  cylindrical  form  of  varying  length  and 
diameter,  with  a  fire-box  in  the  rear  and  a  smoke-box 
in  front.  Flue-tubes  extend  from  the  front  of  the  fire- 
box to  the  smoke-box  and  carry  through  the  boiler  the 
hot  gases  generated  in  the  fire-box. 

Q.  5.  How  does  the  wide  fire-box  boiler  with  fire-box 
projecting  at  each  side  beyond  the  wheels  differ  from  the 
narrow  fire-box  set  between  the  wheels,  and  what  ad- 
vantage has  the  wide  fire-box  over  the  narrow  fire-box? 

A.  The  purpose  of  the  wide  fire-box  is  to  provide  a 
larger  grate  area  than  what  can  be  obtained  with  a  fire- 
box set  between  the  wheels.  It  is  also  easier  to  fire 
properly  than  a  very  long  narrow  fire-box. 

Q.  6.  What  is  a  wagon  top  fire-box  ? 

A.  A  boiler  with  that  part  of  the  shell  above  the  fire- 
box raised  above  the  level  of  the  waist  or  cylindrical  part 
of  the  boiler. 

Q.  7.  Describe  a  locomotive  fire-box. 

A.  The  ordinary  fire-box  is  an  oblong  or  nearly  square 
box  secured  to  the  back  part  of  the  boiler.  It  is  so 
constructed  that  water  spaces  are  provided  between  it 
and  the  outside  shell  at  the  sides  and  the  back.  The 
fire-box  is  secured  to  the  outside  shell  by  stay  bolts, 
and  at  the  front  end  of  the  fire-box  is  a  flue  sheet  with 
the  flues  secured  therein.  At  the  bottom  part  of  the 


348  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

in  a  frame  attached  to  the  mud  ring,  and  beneath  these 
fire-box  is  a  bar  called  the  mud  ring,  conforming  to  the 
shape  of  the  fire-box,  to  which  the  outside  and  inside 
sheets  of  the  fire-box  are  riveted.  Beneath  the  grates  an 
ash-pan  is  secured.  The  crown-sheet  is  sometimes  sup- 
ported by  bars  set  on  edge  but  more  generally  by  stays  of 
various  kinds. 

Q.  8.  Why  have  two  fire-doors  been  placed  in  some  of 
the  wide  fire-boxes  ? 

A.  To  make  it  easier  to  spread  the  coal  over  every 
part  of  the  grates. 

Q.  9.  To  what  strains  is  the  locomotive  fire-box  sub- 
jected ? 

A.  First,  to  the  strains  due  to  high  pressure  of  steam; 
second,  to  the  strains  that  arise  from  varying  tempera- 
ture with  the  hot  water  on  one  side  of  the  sheets  and  a 
hot  flame  or,  perhaps  cold  air,  on  the  other  side.  Then 
the  changes  of  temperature  act  to  lengthen  or  shorten  the 
sheets,  putting  great  strains  upon  the  material.  Varying 
temperature  of  feed-water  also  puts  strain  upon  the  fire-box. 

Q.  10.  How  are  the  side  and  end  sheets  of  the  fire-box 
supported  ? 

A.  The  sides  and  back  sheet  are  supported  by  stay 
bolts;  the  front  sheet  by  the  tubes.  All  these  sheets  are 
supported  by  the  mud  ring. 

Q.  ii.  What  purpose  is  served  by  the  small  hole  drilled 
in  the  outer  end  of  stay-bolts? 

A.  To  give  indication  by  leakage  when  a  stay-bolt 
breaks. 

Q.  12.  In  what  manner  is  a  crown-sheet  supported? 

A .  Sometimes  by  crown  bars,  but  generally  by  stay-bolts. 


EX  AMI  N  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     349 

Q.  13.  What  is  a  bad  feature  about  crown  bars? 

A.  They  impede  circulation  of  water  and  collect  scale 
and  mud. 

Q.  14.  What  are  the  advantages  of  radial-stayed  crown 
sheets  ? 

A.  The  radial  stays  offer  little  obstruction  to  the  free 
circulation  of  the  water.  They  also  put  less  weight  on 
the  fire-box  than  crown  bars;  and  do  away  with  the  need 
of  sling  stays  to  bind  the  fire-box  to  the  shell. 

Q.  15.  How  are  the  inside  and  outside  sheets  secured 
at  the  bottom  ? 

A .  By  the  mud  ring,  or  foundation  ring,  as  it  is  some- 
times called. 

Q.  16.  Describe  the  ash-pan. 

A.  It  is  a  sheet-iron  pan  that  conforms  to  the  outline 
of  the  mud  ring  and  is  secured  thereto.  There  is  a  door 
at  each  end  called  a  damper  for  restraining  or  cutting  off 
the  supply  of  air  when  necessary  and  to  provide  means  for 
removing  cinders  and  ashes  that  the  ash-pan  collects. 

Q.  17.   Why  are  boilers  provided  with  steam-domes? 

A.  The  dome  provides  a  location  for  the  throttle-valve 
removed  considerably  above  the  water  level  in  the  boiler. 
This  tends  to  prevent  water  from  passing  into  the  dry 
pipe  along  with  the  steam. 

Q.  1 8.  What  must  be  the  condition  of  a  boiler  in  order 
to  give  the  best  results? 

A.  It  must  be  kept  as  clean  as  possible  and  as  free 
from  scale  and  mud  as  circumstances  will  permit. 

Q.  19.  What  is  meant  by  circulation  in  a  boiler? 

A.  The  circulation  is  the  moving  of  the  water  from 
one  point  to  another  inside  the  boiler.  Circulation  tends 


350  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

downwards  at  the  cooler  parts  and  upwards  close  to  the 
heating-surfaces.  It  is  strongest  about  the  fire-box  and 
arises  from  the  heated  water  moving  upwards  and  to  the 
stirring  given  to  the  water  by  the  steam  rushing  away 
from  the  heating-surfaces.  There  is  a  theory  that  the 
water  at  the  sides  and  end  of  the  fire-box  flow  down- 
wards at  the  outside  sheet  and  upwards  on  the  hotter 
inside  sheet. 

Q.  20.  What  would  be  the  result  if  a  leg  of  the  fire-box 
became  filled  with  mud? 

A.   The  fire-box  side  sheet  would  become  overheated. 

Q.  21.  What  would  be  the  result  if  the  fire-box  sheets 
became  overheated? 

A.  The  sheets  would  bulge  between  the  stay-bolts  and 
would  be  likely  to  crack.  If  they  were  overheated  by 
becoming  dry  rupture  might  ensue. 

Q.  22.  Why  are  boiler  checks  placed  so  far  away  from 
the  fire-box  ? 

A.  The  checks  are  placed  at  the  coolest  part  of  the 
boiler  so  that  the  fire  gases  that  have  been  cooled  in 
passing  forward  may  still  be  able  to  impart  some  heat 
to  the  incoming  water. 

Q.  23.  What  part  of  the  locomotive  boiler  has  the 
greatest  pressure  ? 

A.  The  steam  pressure  is  uniform  throughout,  but  there 
is  a  little  pressure  due  to  the  weight  of  the  water,  and 
that  is  greatest  on  the  lowest  point  which  is  the  mud  ring. 

Q.  24.  What  should  be  the  length  of  a  locomotive 
smoke-box  ? 

A.  The  ideas  of  designers  vary  greatly  on  this  point. 
Extension  smoke-boxes  vary  from  40  to  60  inches.  The 


EX AMI N A TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     351 

most  common  length  on  the  New  York  Central  Lines  is 
about  65  inches  for  passenger  and  60  inches  for  freight 
engines. 

Q.  25.  What  object  is  there  in  having  the  exhaust  steam 
go  through  the  stack? 

A.  For  the  purpose  of  creating  draft. 

Q.  26.  How  does  this  effect  the  fire? 

A.  The  suction  or  draft  created  by  the  exhaust  steam 
causes  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  smoke-box  which 
draws  air  through  the  grates,  thereby  stimulating  the 
fire. 

Q.  27.  What  should  be  done  to  prevent  black  smoke 
from  trailing  when  the  throttle  is  closed  ? 

A.  The  dampers  should  be  closed,  the  fire  door  partly 
opened,  and  the  blower  started  sufficiently  to  clear  away 
the  smoke. 

Q.  28.  What  are  the  adjustable  parts  in  the  front  end 
by  which  the  fire  is  regulated  ? 

A.  With  an  extension  front  the  diaphragm  plate  in 
front  of  the  tubes  is  adjustable.  With  a  diamond  stack 
an  adjustable  lift  pipe  is  generally  set  between  the  nozzles 
and  the  base  of  the  stack.  A  lift  pipe  is  sometimes  also 
used  with  an  extension  front. 

Q.  29.  Explain  what  adjustment  can  be  made  and  the 
effect  of  each  adjustment  on  the  fire. 

A.  When  the  diaphragm  plate  has  the  lower  part  too 
far  away  from  the  tube  plate  there  is  danger  of  spark- 
throwing  and  the  fire  gases  will  pass  too  freely  through 
the  upper  rows  of  tubes.  With  such  a  defect  the  fire  is 
burned  more  actively  on  the  back  part  of  the  grates  than 
in  front.  If  the  plate  is  set  with  the  lower  part  too  near 


352  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

the  tube  plate  draft  will  be  obstructed  and  the  fire  will 
burn  most  actively  in  the  front  part  of  the  grates. 

There  is  no  hard-and-fast  rule  for  the  adjustment  of 
the  lift  or  petticoat-pipe.  It  is  usually  set  with  the 
bottom  of  the  flare  level  with  the  top  of  the  nozzle.  If 
the  draft  cuts  the  front  of  the  fire  too  much  the  petticoat- 
pipe  ought  to  be  raised  a  little.  If  the  back  part  of  the 
fire  is  cut  it  ought  to  be  lowered.  Diaphragm  and  lift 
pipe  ought  to  be  set  so  that  the  fire  gases  will  be  drawn 
evenly  through  all  the  tubes. 

Q.  30.  What  is  out  of  place  where  the  exhaust  steam 
strikes  the  side  of  the  stack? 

A.  Generally  the  lift  pipe.  That  result  will  also  come 
from  the  nozzle  being  out  of  plumb. 

Q.  31*  What  effect  has  the  stoppage  of  a  number  of 
flues? 

A.  It  reduces  the  steam-making  capacity  of  the  boiler. 
Makes  boiler  steam  poorly. 

Q.  32.  What  is  the  effect  of  leaking  steam-pipe  joints 
inside  the  smoke-box? 

A.   It  injuriously  affects  the  steaming  of  the  boiler. 

Q.  33.  What  causes  pull  at  the  fire  door? 

A.   Diaphragm  plate  or  lift  pipe  being  set  too  high. 

FIRING. 

Q.  34.  Give  briefly  your  opinion  as  to  the  best  method 
of  firing  locomotives. 

A.  In  the  manner  that  will  generate  steam  freely  with 
the  smallest  quantity  of  coal.  This  is  done  generally 
by  steady  firing  with  the  quantity  to  suit  the  way  the 
engine  is  working. 


EX  AMI  N  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     353 

Q.  35.  If  upon  opening  the  fire  door  you  discover  what 
is  commonly  called  "  red"  fire  what  might  be  the  cause? 

A .  The  free  passage  of  air  through  the  grates  being 
obstructed. 

Q.  36.  Is  it  a  waste  of  fuel  to  open  the  fire-box  to 
prevent  safety-valves  from  blowing?  How  can  the 
necessity  for  this  be  prevented? 

A.  First,  it  is  a  waste  of  fuel.  Closing  the  dampers 
and  starting  the  injector  are  the  easiest  remedies.  Sec- 
ond, escape  of  steam  through  the  safety-valves  blow- 
ing may  generally  be  prevented  by  careful  firing  and  fore- 
thought when  approaching  stopping-places.  When  blow- 
ing off  steam  cannot  be  prevented,  some  of  the  heat  may 
be  saved  by  blowing  the  steam  into  the  tender. 

OPERATION  ON  THE  INJECTOR. 

Q.  37.  What  is  an  injector?    , 

A.  An  injector  is  an  apparatus  in  which  a  jet  of  steam 
condensed  by  water  imparts  to  the  latter  its  velocity, 
with  the  result  that  the  final  energy  of  the  combined 
steam  and  water  is  greater  than  that  at  which  the  water 
would  issue  from  the  boiler.  This  difference  of  energy 
in  favor  of  the  jet  passing  through  the  injector  enables 
it  to  lift  the  boiler  check  and  enter  the  boiler. 

Q.  38.  In  a  general  way  what  are  the  two  kinds  of 
injectors? 

A.  In  a  general  way,  injectors  are  known  as  "Single 
Tube"  injectors,  when  they  have  a  single  set  of  nozzles, 
and  as  "  Double  Tube"  injectors  when  they  have  two  sets 
of  nozzles;  one  of  the  latter  kind  has  the  function  of 


354  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

lifting  the  feed-water  and  delivering  it  to  ,the  forcing  set, 
which  latter  imparts  to  the  water  sufficient  velocity  to 
cause  it  to  enter  the  boiler. 

Q.  39.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  lifting  and  a 
non-lifting  injector? 

A.  A  lifting  injector  is  placed  above  the  highest  water- 
level  of  the  tank  from  which  the  feed-water  supply  is 
taken,  so  that  the  injector  has  to  lift  the  water  up  to  its 
own  level.  A-  non-lifting  injector  is  placed  below  the 
lowest  level  of  the  water  of  the  tank  from  which  the  feed- 
water  is  taken,  and  it  flows  to  the  injector  by  gravity. 

Q.  40.   What  are  the  essential  parts  of  an  injector? 

A.  The  essential  parts  of  injectors  are,  in  the  first 
place,  the  nozzles,  which  perform  the  function  of  deliver- 
ing or  forcing  the  water  into  the  boiler,  and,  in  the  second 
place,  the  operating  mechanism,  such  as  the  lifting-valve, 
steam-valve,  water-valve,  etc. 

Q.  41.  How  should  an  injector  be  started? 

A.  In  starting  an  injector,  if  it  is  a  lifting  one,  the 
lifting-valve  should  be  opened  first,  and  when  the  water 
appears  at  the  overflow,  the  forcing-valve  of  the  injector 
should  be  opened  gradually  to  its  full  extent.  In  starting 
a  non-lifting  injector  the  water  should  be  admitted  to  the 
injector  first,  and  when  it  appears  at  the  overflow  the 
steam-valve  should  be  opened  gradually  to  its  full  extent. 

Q.  42.  Give  some  of  the  common  causes  for  failures  of 
injectors  to  work. 

A .  The  most  common  causes  for  failure  of  injectors  are 
the  following:  Leak  in  the  suction-pipe.  Obstructed 
strainer  or  strainer  of  insufficient  size.  Liming  up  of  the 
nozzles.  Loose  hose  lining.  Obstructions  in  the  nozzles^ 


EXAM  IN  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     355 

such  as  pieces  of  coal,  or  other  foreign  matter  washed  in 
from  the  tank.  Obstructions  in  the  delivery-pipe,  such 
as  a  sticking  boiler  check  which  will  not  open  properly. 
Leaky  steam-valve  and  boiler  check,  which  will  affect  the 
starting  of  the  injector  by  heating  the  suction-pipe  and 
the  feed-water. 

Q.  43.  What  course  should  be  pursued  with  the  check- 
valve  stuck  open  ? 

A.  In  case  the  check-valve  is  not  provided  with  a  stop- 
valve,  it  will  be  necessary  to  close  the  heater-cock  and 
water-valve  of  the  injector,  to  prevent  water  from  the 
boiler  from  running  out  through  the  injector.  In  this 
case  reliance  for  feeding  the  boiler  must  be  had  on  the 
injector,  the  check  of  which  must  be  in  good  condition. 
If  the  boiler  check  has  a  stop-valve,  this  can  be  closed 
down  to  shut  off  the  boiler  pressure  from  the  check,  in 
which  case  the  check  can  be  taken  out  for  cleaning  or  for 
the  removal  of  the  causes  which  made  the  valve  stick  open. 

Q.  44.  How  may  it  be  determined  whether  the  check- 
valve  or  steam-valve  is  leaking? 

A.  To  determine  whether  the  check-valve  is  leaking 
the  frost-cock,  with  which  all  delivery-pipes  and  most 
check-valves  are  provided,  should  be  opened.  If  water 
continues  to  issue  from  this  frost-cock,  the  indication  is 
that  the  check-valve  is  leaking.  To  determine  whether 
the  steam-valve  is  leaking,  the  cap  of  the  heater-cock  and 
the  heater-cock  check  should  be  removed.  If  the  steam- 
valve  is  leaking,  steam  will  issue  through  the  opening. 

Q.  45.   What  may  be  done  in  this  case? 

A.  In  such  cases  the  check-valve  and  the  injector  must 
be  [reported  for  repair,  and  the  leaky  valves  ground  in. 


356  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

Sometimes  the  check  valve  may  be  sent  to  its  seat  by 
tapping  the  case  with  a  piece  of  wood. 

Q.  46.  What  may  be  done  if  a  combining  tube  is  ob- 
structed ? 

A.  In  case  the  combining  tube  is  obstructed,  it  must  be 
removed,  the  nozzles  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  all  obstruc- 
tions removed. 

Q.  41.  How  may  it  be  determined  if  the  trouble  is  on 
account  of  a  leak  in  the  suction-pipe? 

A.  When  the  suction-pipe  leaks,  the  injector  works 
with  a  hoarse,  rumbling  sound,  caused  by  the  air  drawn 
in  through  the  leaks.  A  leak  in  the  suction-pipe  may 
also  be  determined  by  closing  the  tank-valve,  and  opening 
the  steam-valve  of  the  injector  slightly,  with  the  heater-cock 
closed.  If  there  is  a  leak  anywhere  in  the  suction  line,  the 
steam  under  such  circumstances  will  issue  through  the  leak. 

Q.  48.  What  should  be  done  in  case  of  obstructed  hose 
or  strainer? 

A.  In  case  of  an  obstructed  hose  or  strainer,  the  con- 
nection between  hose  and  strainer  should  be  broken,  and 
with  the  heater-cock  closed,  steam  should  be  blown  back 
through  the  strainer.  The  water  allowed  to  flow  through 
the  open  hose  will  usually  wash  out  the  obstruction.  In 
most  cases  it  will  be  sufficient  to  remove  the  waste  cap 
of  the  strainer,  and  allow  water  from  the  tank  to  flow 
through  to  wash  out  the  obstruction. 

Q.  49.  What  should  be  done  in  case  the  feed-water 
in  the  tank  is  too  hot? 

A.  In  case  the  feed-water  in  tank  is  too  hot,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  obtain  fresh  water  as  soon  as  possible  to 
reduce  the  temperature. 


EX  AMI  N  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     3  $7 

Q.  50.  Will  an  injector  work  if  all  of  the  steam  is  not 
condensed  by  water? 

A.  An  injector  will  not  work  properly  if  all  of  the 
steam  is  not  condensed. 

Q.  51.  If  it  is  necessary  to  take  down  the  tank-hose, 
how  can  the  water  be  prevented  from  flowing  out  of  a 
tank  that  has  the  siphon  connection  instead  of  the  old 
style  tank-valve? 

A.  In  case  a  tank  is  provided  with  a  siphon  connection 
in  place  of  the  usual  type  of  tank-valve,  it  is  better  to 
open  the  air-vent  at  the  top  of  the  pipe,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  water  from  flowing  out  when  the  tank-hose  is  taken 
down.  The  sizes  of  the  siphon  pipes  are  usually  large 
enough  to  admit  air  when  the  hose  is  disconnected,  so 
that  there  is  little  danger  of  the  water  being  siphoned  out 
of  the  tank. 

Q.  52.  Explain  how  the  water  in  the  delivery-pipe  can 
be  protected  from  freezing. 

A.  If  the  injector  is  not  in  use  for  a  long  period  in 
cold  weather,  the  frost-cock  in  the  delivery-pipe  should 
be  opened  to  prevent  freezing. 

Q.  53.  Explain  how  you  would  prevent  the  waste-pipe 
freezing,  either  while  the  injector  is  working  or  shut  off. 

A.  The  waste-pipe  contains  water  only  during  the  short 
period  when  the  injector  is  started,  and  even  then  it 
flows  through  the  pipe  at  a  rapid  rate,  so  that  the  danger 
of  freezing  is  very  remote.  When  the  injector  is  at  rest, 
the  waste-pipe  is  empty.  A  gradual  freezing  as  a  result 
of  a  badly  leaking  lifting-  or  steam-valve  may  be  pre- 
vented by  occasionally  opening  the  lifting-valve  slightly, 
a»nd  allowing  steam  to  blow  through  the  waste-pipe. 


358  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

Q.  54.  How  can  the  suction-pipe  and  injector-hose  be 
protected  from  freezing? 

A.  The  suction-pipe  and  hose  may  be  protected  from 
freezing  by  using  the  injector  as  a  heater. 

Q.  55.  Explain  how  the  heater  is  used  on  a  lever  Moni- 
tor injector  ? 

A.  In  connection  with  the  lever-motion  injector,  it  can 
be  used  as  a  heater  by  closing  down  the  heater-cock  and 
opening  the  lever  very  slightly,  and  fastening  it  in  that 
position  by  means  of  the  thumbscrew  on  the  side  of  the 
lever. 

Q.  56.  How  is  the  heater  used  with  a  screw  Monitor 
injector  ? 

A.  With  a  screw  Monitor  injector  it  can  be  used  as  a 
heater  by  closing  down  the  heater-cock  and  opening  the 
steam-valve  spindle  about  half  a  turn. 

Q.  57.  Is  the  indication  of  water-level  by  the  gauge- 
glass  a  safe  indication  if  the  water-level  in  the  glass  is 
not  moving  up  and  down  when  the  locomotive  is  in 
motion  ? 

A.  If  the  water-level  in  the  gauge-glass  of  a  locomotive 
is  not  moving  up  and  down  when  the  locomotive  is  in 
motion,  the  indication  of  the  water-level  is  not  a  safe  one. 

Q.  58.  Is  any  more  water  used  when  an  engine  foams 
than  when  water  is  solid? 

A.  When  an  engine  foams,  the  consumption  of  water 
is  decidedly  greater  than  when  the  boiler  does  not  foam. 

Q.  59.  How  should  an  injector  be  stopped  ? 

A.  In  stopping  an  injector,  the  steam-valve  should  be 
pressed  firmly  and  gradually  on  its  seat,  avoiding  (more 
particularly  in  the  case  of  a  lever  mechanism)  the  closing 


EX  A  MINA  T1ON  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     359 

of  the  valve  with  a  sudden  shock,  which  injures  the  valve 
and  its  seat,  and  has  a  tendency  to  loosen  these  seats, 
where  they  are  inserted  in  the  body  of  the  valve. 


AIR-BRAKE  QUESTIONS. 
SECOND  YEAR  EXAMINATION. 

Q.  i.  Why  is  the  present  brake  called  the  automatic 
brake  ? • 

A.  Because  it  is  automatic  in  its  action;  that  is,  its 
normal  condition  is  when  it  is  held  off,  due  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  train-line  pressure,  and  anything  which  happens 
to  reduce  train-pipe  pressure  .will  cause  the  brake  to  apply 
of  its  own  accord,  or  automatically. 

Q.  2.   Where  is  the  compressed  air  stored? 

A.  In  the  main  reservoir  on  the  engine;  in  the  train 
line  which  extends  throughout  the  train,  under  the  cars 
and  connects  the  brake-valve  with  the  triple  valves,  and 
in  the  auxiliary  reservoir  under  each  car. 

Q.  3.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  auxiliary  reservoir, 
train-pipe,  triple  valve,  and  brake-cylinder? 

A.  The  auxiliary  reservoir  holds  a  storage  of  com- 
pressed air  for  supplying  the  brake-cylinder  with  pressure 
with  which  the  brake-piston  is  pushed  out,  engaging  the 
system  of  levers  which  brings  the  brake -shoes  up  against 
the  wheels  and  supply  braking  power.  The  train-pipe 
stores  a  quantity  of  compressed  air,  which  holds  the  triple 
valve  in  release  position  normally,  but  when  the  train-pipe 
pressure  is  reduced,  the  triple  valve  will  shift  and  apply 
the  brake.  The  triple  valve  performs  a  three-fold  func- 


360  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

tion.  When  in  release  position,  it  permits  a  charge  of 
pressure  to  pass  from  the  train-pipe  into  the  auxiliary 
reservoir.  In  application  position,  it  permits  pressure  to 
pass  from,  the  auxiliary  reservoir  into  the  brake-cylinder. 
In  release  position,  it  permits  pressure  to  discharge  from 
the  brake-cylinder  to  the  atmosphere.  Thus  air  passes 
through  the  triple  valve  three  times.  The  brake-cylinder 
receives  pressure  from  the  auxiliary  reservoir  in  service 
application,  and  from  both  train-pipe  and  auxiliary  reser- 
voir in  emergency  application,  which  pushes  out  the 
piston  and  applies  the  brake. 

Q.  4.  Where  does  the  pump  deliver  the  air? 

A.  To  the  main  reservoir  on  the  engine. 

Q.  5.  Where  does  the  main-reservoir  pressure  begin 
and  end? 

A.  It  begins  with  the  discharge-valves  of  the  air-pump 
and  ends  at  the  rotary  valve  of  the  engineer's  brake- 
valve. 

Q.  6.  What  is  excess  pressure  ? 

A.  That  amount  of  pressure  contained  in  the  main 
reservoir  higher  than  that  in  the  train  line,  available  for 
releasing  brakes. 

Q.  8.  How  should  a  brake  be  cut  out  ? 

A.  By  turning  the  stop-cock  in  the  branch  or  cross- 
over pipe. 

Q.  9.  How  should  the  handle  of  cut-out  cock  stand 
when  closed  ? 

A.  Parallel  with  the  pipe. 

Q.  10.  How  should  handle  of  the  angle-cock  stand  when 
closed  ? 

A.  At  a  right  angle  with  the  pipe. 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     361 

Q.  ii.  What  does  line,  or  mark,  at  end  of  plug-cock 
indicate,  regardless  of  position  of  handle? 

A.  This  line,  or  mark,  indicates  the  direction  of  the 
passageway  through  the  plug-cock,  and  by  it  may  be 
known  whether  the  cock  is  open,  regardless  of  the  handle 
itself. 

Q.  12.  How  should  a  brake  be  "  bled"  off? 

A.  The  release- valve  should  be  sharply  opened  for  an 
instant,  then  quickly  closed.  This  operation  may  be 
repeated  until  the  triple  valve  begins  to  discharge  the 
air,  which  can  be  heard  at  the  retaining- valve  or  exhaust  - 
port  of  the  triple,  then  no  further  opening  of  this  valve 
should  be  made. 

Q.  13.  When  should  the  brake- valve  be  used  in  the 
emergency  position  ? 

A.  Only  in  extreme  emergency  cases  to  prevent  acci- 
dent, such  as  loss  of  life  or  property,  then  the  handle 
should  be  placed  in  the  emergency  position  and  left  there 
until  the  train  stops  or  the  danger  of  accident  is  over. 

Q.  14.  What  does  the  red  hand  on  the  air-gauge 
register  ? 

A.  Main-reservoir  pressure. 

Q.  15.  What  does  the  black  hand  register? 

A.  The  pressure  above  the  equalizing  piston  and  in 
chamber  D.  This  pressure  may  be  properly  classed  with 
train-line  pressure. 


362  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

THIRD  YEAR  EXAMINATION. 

General  Questions. 
ENGINEER'S  FIRST  DUTIES. 

Q.  i.  What  are  the  duties  of  an  engineman  before  at- 
taching the  locomotive  to  the  train? 

A.  The  duty  of  the  engineman  is  to  thoroughly  inspect 
his  engine  for  possible  defects  of  machinery.  He  should 
know  the  condition  of  the  fire-box,  grate-bars,  etc.;  that 
gauge  and  water-glass  cocks  are  open  and  working  freely, 
and  that  the  crown-sheet  is  covered  with  sufficient  water 
to  protect  it  from  injury,  and  that  the  tender  has  been 
supplied  with  water.  He  should  also  know  the  condition 
of  the  engineer's  brake- valve  and  air-pump,  and  take 
such  other  precautions  as  would  prevent  an  engine 
failure. 

Q.  2.  What  tools  should  there  be  on  the  locomotive? 

A.  The  engine  should  be  provided  with  such  tools  as 
are  found  necessary  in  everyday  work.  This  includes 
also  tools  with  which  to  make  repairs  in  case  of  accident. 
Rake,  coal-pick  and  shovel  are  classed  as  tools. 

Some  companies  specify  that  tools  ought  to  be  carried 
on  the  engine.  Where  that  is  done  the  answer  to  this 
question  should  be  regulated  accordingly.  ' 

General  Questions. 

Q.  3.    What  examination  should  be  made  after  any 

work  or  repairs  have  been  done  on  valves,  brasses,  etc.? 

A.  A  man  should  satisfy  himself  by  personal  inspection 


EX AMI N A TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    363 

that  the  work  has  been  properly  done,  that  all  movable 
parts  have  been  returned  to  place  and  properly  secured 
by  bolts,  set-screws  or  otherwise. 

Q.  4.  How  can  it  be  known  whether  a  boiler  is  carry- 
ing the  proper  steam-pressure? 

A.  By  the  safety-valves  and  steam-gauge,  which  should 
orrespond  with  the  prescribed  pressure  as  established  by 
ihe  -ompany. 

Q.  5.  What  attention  should  be  given  to  boiler  attach- 
ments, such  as  gauge-cocks,  water-glasses,  etc.? 

A.  It  should  be  known  that  they  are  open  and  work- 
ing freely  at  all  times. 

Q.  6.  Is  smokeless  firing  practicable  ? 

A.  It  is  practicable  with  certain  kinds  of  coal.  With 
other  kinds  of  coal  the  best  a  fireman  can  do  is  to  fire 
frequently,  keeping  the  fire  as  thin  as  practicable. 

Q.  7.  Trace  the  steam  from  the  boiler  through  the  cylin- 
ders to  the  atmosphere,  and  explain  how  it  transmits 
power. 

A.  Steam  enters  from  the  main  throttle  located  in  the 
dome  into  the  dry-pipe,  thence  to  the  steam-pipe  and  into 
the  steam-chest.  From  the  chest  it  passes  through  the 
admission-port  into  one  end  of  the  cylinder  and  forces 
the  piston  to  the  opposite  end.  When  the  piston  has  very 
nearly  completed  the  stroke,  the  movement  of  the  valve, 
which  is  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  movement  of  the 
piston,  establishes  communication  with  the  exhaust- 
passage  and  permits  the  steam  to  pass  through  the  exhaust- 
passage  into  the  stack  and  thence  to  the  atmosphere. 

Q.  8.  How  much  power  have  the  piston  and  cross-head 
on  one  side  to  turn  the  crank-pin,  when  the  center  of  the 


364  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

wrist-pin,  the  crank-pin,  and  the  main-driving  axle  on 
the  same  side  are  in  a  straight  line  ? 

A.  None  whatever. 

Q.  9.  How  then  is  the  engine  kept  going  ? 

A.  Since  a  locomotive  consists  of  two  complete  engines 
whose  main-rods  transmit  their  power  to  the  same  driving- 
shaft  upon  which  the  main-pins  are  at  right  angles  to  one 
another,  it  follows  that  the  engine  whose  main-pin  is  on 
either  the  top  or  bottom  quarter  exerts  sufficient  power  to 
cause  the  wheel  to  rotate,  carrying  the  pin  on  the  opposite 
side  past  the  dead  center  to  a  point  where  the  steam  be- 
comes effective  to  move  the  engine  on  that  side. 

Q.  10.  What  is  meant  by  "  working  steam  expansively  ?  " 

A.  By  working  steam  expansively  is  meant  the  process 
by  which  the  steam  is  let  into  the  cylinder  and  cut  off  before 
the  piston  has  finished  its  full  stroke,  thereby  allowing 
the  expansive  force  of  the  steam  to  exert  a  certain  amount 
of  energy  on  the  piston  from  the  time  that  cut-off  took 
place  up  to  the  point  where  release  occurs. 

Q.  ii.  How  should  the  locomotive  b<*  started  to  avoid 
jerks,  and  what  train  signals  should  be  looked  for  imme- 
diately after  starting? 

A.  The  engine  should  be  started  with  the  reverse-lever 
in  full  gear  in  the  direction  in  which  the  locomotive  is 
expected  to  move,  and  a  gradual  admission  of  steam. 

Signals  should  be  carefully  looked  for  towards  the  rear 
end  of  the  train  to  make  sure  that  the  entire  train  has 
been  started. 

Q.  12.  After  a  locomotive  has  been  started,  how  can  it 
be  run  most  economically? 

A.    By  working  steam  expansively,  that  is,  with  the 


EX  AM  IN  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     365 

reverse-lever  cut  back  to  a  point  where  the  engine  will 
handle  the  train  with  a  full  throttle. 

Q.  13.  If  you  discovered  that  a  fixed  signal  was 
missing  or  was  imperfectly  displayed,  what  should  you 
do? 

•  A.  Stop.  Ascertain  the  cause  and  report  to  the  proper 
official  from  the  first  telegraph  station  as  per  standard 
or  special  rules  covering  this  subject. 

Q.  14.  How  rapidly  should  the  water  be  supplied  to  the 
boiler  ? 

A.  Water  should  be  delivered  to  the  boiler  steadily 
and  in  just  sufficient  quantity  to  replace  the  water  which 
is  being  evaporated  in  doing  work. 

FOAMING  AND  PRIMING. 

Q.  15.  What  is  the  difference  between  priming  and 
foaming  of  a  locomotive  boiler? 

A.  Priming  is  carrying  water  along  with  the  steam 
and  is  caused  by  water  being  carried  too  high,  or  from 
insufficient  steam  room  in  the  boiler.  Foaming  consists 
of  an  aggregation  of  bubbles,  or  both,  which  carry  the 
sediment  to  the  surface.  In  both  cases  water  is  carried 
with  the  steam  to  the  cylinder.  To  the  ordinary  observer 
priming  and  foaming  are  the  same  thing. 

Q.  1 6.  What  should  you  do  in  case  of  foaming  in  the 
boiler  ? 

A.  The  throttle  should  be  either  partly  or  entirely 
closed  for  a  few  moments  to  ascertain  the  water-level  in 
the  boiler.  Where  surface  cocks  are  used,  they  should 
be  used  while  the  engine  is  at  work,  because  they  will 


366  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

then  carry  away  the  scum  which  has  been  driven  to  the 
surface.  When  recourse  is  had  to  the  blow-off  cock,  it 
can  best  be  done  when  the  engine  has  been  shut  off,  as 
the  sediment  then  settles  to  the  bottom. 

Q.  17.  What  danger  is  there  when  the  water  foams 
badly? 

A.  There  is  danger  of  exposing  the  crown-sheet  to 
the  intense  heat  through  the  water  being  too  low,  and 
liability  of  burning  it.  There  is  also  danger  of  knocking 
out  cylinder-heads. 

ADJUSTING  ROD  BRASSES  AND  SETTING  UP  WEDGES. 

Q.  1 8.  What  work  about  a  locomotive  should  be  done 
by  the  engineer? 

A.  He  should  set  up  the  wedges  and  key  up  the  rod 
brasses.  Some  railroad  officials  do  not  permit  the 
engineers  to  adjust  wedges  or  brasses. 

Q.  19.  How  should  the  work  of  setting  up  the  wedges 
be  done  ? 

A.  The  engine  should  be  placed  with  the  crank-pin 
of  the  right  side  on  the  upper  forward  eighth,  which 
brings  the  crank-pin-of  the  left  side  on  the  back  upper 
eighth.  Block  the  wheels,  and  with  the  reverse-lever  in 
the  forward  motion  apply  a  small  quantity  of  steam. 
As  the  action  of  the  steam  against  the  piston  has  a  ten- 
dency to  move  it  forward,  the  strain  is  thrown  against  the 
shoes,  permitting  a  free  movement  of  the  wedges.  The 
wedges  should  be  set  up  with  an  ordinary  wrench  as  far 
as  possible  and  then  pulled  down  again  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  to  prevent  the  box  from  sticking  either  from 


EX  AMI  N  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     367 

overheating  of  the  box  or  defective  lubrication  of  the 
wedge. 

Q.  20.  How  should  the  rod  brasses  be  keyed? 

A.  The  key  should  be  driven  down  just  enough  to 
bring  together  brass  to  brass.  Any  greater  force  would 
spring  the  crown  of  the  brass  against  the  pin  and  cause 
is  to  heat. 

Q.  21.  How  should  an  engine  be  placed  for  the  purpose 
of  keying  rod  brasses  ? 

A.  That  depends  entirely  on  which  rods  are  to  be  keyed. 
If  the  main-rod  is  to  be  keyed,  place  the  side  of  the 
engine  upon  which  the  work  is  to  be  done  either  on  the 
upper  forward  eighth  or  the  lower  back  eighth,  as  these 
positions  present  the  greatest  diameter  of  the  pin  to  the 
rod  brass  and  guarantee  a  free  movement  at  all  points 
without  binding. 

Q.  22.  What  is  the  necessity  of  keeping  brasses  keyed 
up  properly? 

A.  To  prevent  unnecessary  shocks  and  heating  of  red 
brasses  and  pounding  in  driving-boxes,  which  in  time 
cause  undue  strain  on  the  entire  motion  with  disastrous 
consequences. 

Q.  23.  How  should  the  side  rods  on  mogul  and  con- 
solidation locomotive  be  keyed? 

A.  Place  the  engine  on  the  dead  center  either  forward 
or  back.  First  key  the  middle  connection,  next  the  ends 
of  rods  and  observe  that  the  rod  moves  freely  on  the 
pin.  Now  place  the  engine  on  the  opposite  dead  center, 
and  notice  if  the  rods  move  freely  at  this  point  also. 
This  is  particularly  necessary  with  rod  brasses  having 
keys  on  both  sides  of  pin  and  which  are  apt  to  be  made 


368  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

either  too  long  or  too  short,  throwing  the  rods  out  of 
tram   and  causing  undue   strain  on   rods  and  driving- 
boxes,  and  also  danger  of  broken  rods  or  pins. 
Q.  24.  What  is  meant  by  "  engine  out  of  tram?" 
A.   By  an  engine  out  of  tram  is  meant  one  whose  dis- 
tance from  center  to  center  of  axle  or  rod  on  one  side 
does  not  coincide  with  the  similar  distance  on  the  oppo- 
site side;  or  it  may  mean  that  the  distance  between  two 
connected  crank-pins  is  not  the  same  as  the  distance 
between  the  two  axles  to  which  the  crank-pins  belong. 

WHY  SMOKE-BOX  IS  KEPT  AIR-TIGHT. 

Q.  25.  Why  is  it  important  that  there  be  no  holes 
through  smoke-box  sheets  or  front  and  none  in  the  smoke- 
box  seams  or  joints  ? 

A.  There  should  be  no  possible  chance  for  the  admis- 
sion of  air  to  any  part  of  the  smoke-box,  because  it  tends 
to  destroy  the  vacuum  necessary  to  create  a  perfect  draft 
on  the  fire  and  also  fans  fires  in  the  smoke-box  that  warp 
and  destroy  the  sheets  or  front  end. 

VALVES  AND  PISTONS. 

Q.  26.  Describe  a  piston-valve  ? 

A.  A  piston-valve  is  a  cylindrical  spool-shaped  device 
having  cast-iron  packing  rings  sprung  into  place  on  the 
valve,  and  operating  in  a  cylinder  of  equal  diameter. 
The  valve-cylinder  is  provided  with  suitable  admission 
and  discharge  ports  and  permits  the  valve  to  perform 
the  same  functions  as  an  ordinary  slide-valve. 


EX  AMI  N  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     369 

Q.  27.  What  is  a  balance  slide-valve?  How  is  it 
balanced  and  why?  For  what  reason  is  the  hole  drilled 
through  the  top  of  the  valve? 

A.  A  balance  slide-valve  is  one  where  a  certain  per- 
centage of  the  steam-pressure  exerted  on  the  top  of  the 
ordinary  slide-valve  has  been  prevented. 

The  balancing  feature  is  obtained  by  a  steam  table 
extending  beyond  the  extreme  travel  of  the  valve,  and 
either  bolted  to  the  steam-chest  cover  or  cast  in  one  piece 
with  it.  The  Allen-Richardson  valve  has  its  valve  grooved 
for  the  reception  of  four  snugly-fitting  strips,  which  are 
supported  against  the  table  by  semi-elliptic  springs,  which 
make  a  steam-tight  joint,  and  prevent  any  pressure  reach- 
ing the  enclosed  part  of  the  valve.  The  American  balance- 
valve  obtains  the  same  results  but  uses  circular,  tapering 
rings  supported  by  coiled  springs. 

The  small  hole  in  the  top  of  the  valve  is  for  the  express 
purpose  of  allowing  any  pressure  or  water  which  may 
have  accumulated  on  the  top  of  the  valve  from  whatever 
cause  to  escape  to  the  exhaust-port. 

Q.  28.  What  is  meant  by  inside  and  outside  admission 
valves  ? 

A.  By  inside  admission  valve  is  meant  one  where  the 
steam  enters  the  steam-port  of  the  cylinder  from  the  inside 
edge  of  the  valve  and  is  exhausted  from  the  outer  edge 
of  the  valve;  by  outside  admission  is  meant  one  where 
steam  enters  the  steam-port  from  the  outer  edge  and  is 
exhausted  from  the  inner  edge,  similarly  to  our 
common  slide-valve,  which  is  an  outside  admission 
valve. 

Q.  29.  What  is  the  relative  motion  of  main  piston  and 


370  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

valve  for  inside  admission  valve  and  for  outside  admission 
valve  ? 

A.  With  inside  admission  the  motion  of  the  valve  is 
in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  piston's  motion  at  the 
beginning  of  the  stroke.  With  outside  admission  the 
movement  of  the  valve  is  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
piston  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke. 

Q.  30.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  valve  motion  for 
outside  admission  valves  and  inside  admission  valves? 

A.  Both  may  have  either  direct  or  indirect  motion, 
according  to  the  position  of  the  eccentrics  on  the  shaft 
and  the  type  of  rocker-arm  used. 

Q.  31.  What  is  a  direct-motion  valve-gear?  What  is 
an  indirect-motion  valve-gear? 

A.  A  direct-motion  valve-gear  is  one  that  transmits 
the  motion  of  the  eccentric  to  the  valve  direct  by  means 
of  a  transmission  bar  or  its  equivalent  connecting  with 
the  valve-stem. 

An  indirect-motion  valve-gear  is  one  where  the  power 
is  transmitted  from  the  eccentric  to  the  lower  rocker- 
arm,  which  gives  motion  to  the  upper  arm  that  moves 
the  valve-rod  connecting  with  the  valve-stem. 

Q.  32.  What  is  meant  by  lead? 

A.'  Lead  is  the  amount  of  opening  a  valve  has  when 
the  piston  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke. 

Q.  33.  What  is  meant  by  steam-side  lap? 

A.  By  steam-side  lap  is  meant  the  amount  the  valve 
overlaps  the  steam-ports,  when  the  valve  is  on  the  middle 
of  the  seat. 

Q.  34.  What  is  meant  by  exhaust-side  lap  and  by 
exhaust-side  clearance  ? 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    371 

A.  Exhaust-side  lap  is  the  amount  the  inner  edge  of 
the  valve  overlaps  the  steam-ports  when  the  valve  is  in 
the  middle  of  the  seat. 

Exhaust-side  clearance  is  the  amount  the  inside  edge 
of  the  valve  comes  short  of  covering  the  pOi.ts  when  the 
valve  is  in  the  middle  of  the  seat. 

Q.  35.  With  an  indirect  valve  motion,  what  would  be 
the  position  of  the  eccentric  relative  to  the  crank-pins? 
With  direct-motion  valve-gear?  Why? 

A.  If  the  valves  are  the  inside-admission  indirect, 
necessitating  a  rocker-shaft,  the  eccentrics  would  lean 
toward  the  fire-box  when  the  main-pin  is  on  the  for- 
ward dead  center;  while  an  outside  admission  indirect 
has  the  belly  of  the  eccentrics  leaning  toward  the  main- 
pin. 

With  an  inside-admission  direct  and  a  transmission 
bar,  both  eccentrics  lean  toward  the  pin;  while  with 
the  outside  admission  direct  the  eccentrics  have  the 
same  position  as  with  the  inside- admission  indirect. 
With  the  inside  admission  indirect  the  eccentric-rods 
are  crossed,  when  the  crank-pin  is  on  the  forward  dead 
center;  the  eccentric- rods  with  the  outside  admission 
direct  are  also  crossed  when  the  crank-pin  is  on  the 
forward  dead  center. 

These  positions  of  the  eccentrics  are  necessary  with 
the  corresponding  valve  motion  to  secure  correct  move- 
ment of  the  valves. 

Q.  36.  What  effect  would  be  produced  upon  the  lap 
and  lead  by  changing  the  length  of  the  eccentric-rods? 

A.  If  the  valves  are  set  so  that  they  travel  an  even 
distance  over  the  center  of  the  valve- seat,  changing  the 


372  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

length  of  eccentric-rods  would  make  the  valves  travel 
unevenly,  opening  the  steam-ports  too  much  at  one  end 
and  too  little  at  the  other.  Changing  the;  length  of  the 
eccentric-rods  after  the  valves  have  been  properly  set 
would  produce  too  much  lead  on  one  rod  and  not  enough 
at  the  other. 

Q.  37.  Why  are  eccentric-rods  made  adjustable? 

A.  To  allow  for  adjustment  of  the  valve-travel,  so 
that  even  steam  admission  may  be  made  at  both  steam- 
ports. 

CYLINDERS,  PISTONS,  AND  PACKING. 

Q.  38.  Why  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  cylinders  free 
from  water  ? 

A.  To  prevent  rupture  of  cylinder  and  head  which 
would  necessarily  occur  should  much  water  which  is  incom- 
pressible remain  after  the  valve  had  closed  all  communica- 
tion and  the  piston  been  forced  to  the  end  of  its  stroke. 

Q.  39.  Where  is  the  piston-rod  packing  located? 
Cylinder  packing? 

A.  The  piston-rod  packing  is  located  in  the  back 
cylinder-head. 

Cylinder  packing  is  to  be  found  in  the  grooved  re- 
ceptacles provided  for  that  purpose  in  the  circular  sur- 
face of  the  piston. 

Q.  40.  How  are  the  metallic  packing-rings  on  valve- 
stems  and  piston-rods  usually  held  in  place?  And  what 
provision  is  made  for  the  uneven  movement  of  the  rods? 

A.  Metallic  packing-rings  are  held  in  place  by  stif- 
fened spiral  springs  pressing  against  a  ring  and  forcing 
the  packing  into  a  bell-shaped  cone.  - 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION      373 

Suitable  provision  is  made  for  the  uneven  movement 
of  the  rods  in  that  the  cone  holding  the  metallic  packing 
kas  a  ground  and  steam-tight  joint,  which  permits  the 
cone  to  have  a  lateral  motion  against  the  face  of  the 
packing-gland,  and  thereby  prevents  the  escape  of  any 
steam. 

CAUSE  OF  TANK   SWEATING. 

Q.  41.  What  is  the  cause  of  tank  sweating?  And 
what  will  prevent  it? 

A.  Sweating  on  the  tank  is  caused  by  the  cold  water 
inside  condensing  the  moisture  in  the  air.  It  can  be  pre- 
vented by  raising  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the 
tank  to  the  temperature  of  the  air. 

FRICTION  AND  LUBRICATION. 

Q.  42.  What  is  friction? 

A.  Friction  is  the  resistance  between  two  bodies  in 
contact,  which  resists  the  sliding  of  one  upon  the  other. 

Q.  43.  Upon  what  does  the  amount  of  friction  depend? 

A.  The  amount  of  friction  between  two  bodies  in 
contact  depends  on  pressure,  temperature,  speed,  kind 
of  material,  and  quantity  and  quality  of  lubricant. 

Q.  44.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  introduction  of  oil  or 
other  lubricants  between  frictional  parts? 

A .  It  reduces  friction  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  lubricant  used. 

Q.  45.  Explain  the  principle  on  which  grease-cups 
operate.  What  is  the  objection  in  using  water  on  a 


374  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING, 

hot  pin  where  grease  is  used,  or  a  hot  pin  with  babbitted 
brasses  ? 

A.  The  principle  on  which  grease-cups  operate  is 
that  of  compression  and  expansion.  As  grease  reduces 
friction  less  rapidly  than  oil,  a  certain  amount  of  heat 
is  generated,  and  as  grease  expands  more  rapidly  than 
metal,  it  is  forced  through  the  aperature  in  the  cup  down 
upon  the  pin. 

As  one  of  the  ingredients  of  "  rod  grease"  is  lye,  and 
as  lye  will  freely  dissolve  in  water,  the  application  cf 
water  to  a  pin  will  remove  the  "  grease"  and  destroy 
lubrication. 

The  intermittent  use  of  water  on  hot  pins  provided 
with  babbitted  brasses,  where  oil  is  used  as  a  lubricant, 
has  a  tendency  to  clog  the  feeder  with  babbitt  metal, 
thereby  preventing  the  flow  of  oil  to  the  pin.  It  also 
produces  unequal  contraction  of  the  pin,  often  with 
disastrous  results.  There  can  be  no  bad  effect  from 
the  continuous  use  of  water,  if  used  before  the  brass> 
becomes  overheated  and  before  the  babbitt  starts  to  melt. 

BLOW-OFF  COCK. 

Q.  46.  Explain  the  construction  and  operation  of  the 
blow-off  cock? 

A.  A  blow-off  cock  may  be  either  a  globe-valve 
operated  by  a  screw,  a  taper  plug-valve  operated  by  a 
lever,  a  sliding  disk-valve  operated  by  a  lever,  or  a 
plunger-valve  upon  whose  upper  end  either  steam  or 
air  may  be  forcec1  to  unseat  it. 

The  object  of  any  of  these  valves  when  open  is  to 


EXAM1NA TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     375 

permit  the  escape  of  sediment  and  impurities  from  the 
boiler,  and  for  that  reason  they  are  located  at  the  bottom 
of  the  boiler. 

BELL-RINGER. 

Q.  47.  Describe  a  bell-ringer;  and  how  may  it  be 
adjusted  ? 

A.  The  automatic  bell-ringer  is  a  device  whose  mech- 
anism consists  of  a  valve  having  either  a  sliding  or  rotary 
movement  and  provided  with  a  suitable  admission  and 
exhaust-port,  a  piston  operated  in  a  cylinder,  and  a  piston- 
rod  connected  to  the  bell-crank  so  as  to  impart  a  swing- 
ing movement.  The  motive  power  is  air  taken  from  the 
main  reservoir. 

Some  types  are  provided  with  a  threaded  stem  and 
a  jam  nut  by  which  adjustment  can  be  made,  while 
others  have  a  piston-rod  operating  like  a  telescope  and 
requiring  no  adjustment. 


USE  OF  THE  BLOWER. 

Q.  48.  How  should  the  blower  be  used  when  an  engine 
is  on  the  cinder-pit  ? 

A.  The  blower  should  be  used  with  just  enough  force 
while  cleaning  the  fire  to  prevent  the  escape  of  gases 
from  the  fire  door  and  possible  injury  to  the  fire-cleaner. 

When  the  engine  is  at  rest  it  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  use  the  blower  to  prevent  the  emission  of  smoke. 
In  this  case  the  fire  door  should  be  kept  on  the  latch. 
The  blower  has  sometimes  to  be  used  for  stimulating 


376  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

the  "re  when  the  engine  is  not  steaming  freely.  In 
such  cases  it  can  be  employed  to  best  advantage  when 
descending  grades  or  approaching  stations  with  the 
steam  shut  off. 


ENGINE  DISABLED   ON  THE  ROAD. 

Q.  49.  In  case  the  locomotive  in  your  care  became 
disabled  on  the  road  what  should  you  do? 

A.  First,  protect  the  train  front  and  rear  by  flags 
the  prescribed  distance.  Make  such  temporary  repairs 
as  are  necessary  to  get  the  train  to  the  next  siding,  in 
order  to  prevent  blocking  the  main  line.  When  on  the 
siding  make  all  the  repairs  practicable  with  the  tools 
at  hand.  If  the  breakdown  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  making  even  temporary  repairs, 
so  as  to  clear  the  main  lines,  arrange  to  notify  the  nearest 
telegraph  office  of  your  location  and  ask  for  assistance. 

Q.  50.  Suppose  a  wash-out  plug  blew  out,  or  a  blow-off 
cock  broke  off  or  would  not  close,  what  should  be  done  ? 

A.  Draw  the  fire  at  once  to  prevent  burning  of  fire- 
box sheets.  In  addition  to  this,  in  cold,  freezing  weather, 
the  pet-eocks  on  all  connections  where  there  is  any 
liability  of  water  collecting  should  be  opened  to  drain 
the  pipes,  and  in  the  absence  of  cocks,  the  couplings 
should  be  blacked  off.  The  tender-hose  couplings  should 
be  disconnected  and  special  care  should  be  given  to  the 
air-pump  drain-cocks  to  prevent  the  rupture  of  the 
steam-cylinder  of  pump. 

If  a  heavy  fire  was  on  the  grates  it  might  be  necessary 
to  dampen  it  with  earth  or  water  before  dumping  it. 


EX  AM  IN  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     377 

Q.  51.  What  should  be  done,  should  f.e  grates  be 
burned  out  or  broken  while  on  the  road? 

A.  Block  up  the  broken  or  burnt  grates,  with  fish- 
plates, brick,  or  anything  conveniently  at  hand,  and 
disconnect  the  good  grate  immediately  ahead  and  back 
of  the  burnt  section  in  order  to  prevent  disturbing  the 
other  grates  when  shaking  down  the  fire. 


TO  PREVENT  SPARK  THROWING. 

Q.  52.  What  precaution  should  be  taken  to  prevent 
locomotives  throwing  fire? 

A.  In  order  to  prevent  engines  from  throwing  fire,  the 
netting  in  the  smoke-stack  or  smoke-box  should  be  care- 
fully looked  after,  and  the  cinder  slide  and  hand-hole 
plates  must  be  in  their  proper  places  and  securely  fastened. 
Equally  important  is  the  knowledge  that  the  ash-pan  is 
clean,  otherwise  live  coals,  more  dangerous  than  cinders, 
will  roll  out  of  the  pan  and  start  fires  on  bridges  and  along 
the  company's  property. 

BURSTED  OR  LEAKY  TUBES. 

Q.  53.  What  should  be  done  with  a  badly  leaking,  or 
bursted  tube? 

A.  Where  time  and  conditions  permit,  burst  flues  can 
be  put  in  condition  to  bring  in  train.  First,  fill  the  boiler 
as  full  of  water  as  it  will  hold,  to  compensate  for  loss. 
Then  blow  off  steam  through  the  whistle  or  remove  re- 
lease-valve from  chest,  open  the  throttle,  and  blow  off 


378  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

steam  and  deaden  the  fire  so  that  the  flue  can  be  plugged. 
If  the  tube  is  burst,  it  must  be  plugged  at  both  ends.  If 
it  is  simply  a  case  of  leaky  tube  at  tube-sheet,  the  above 
method  is  not  necessary.  Simply  plug  the  tube.  Bran  or 
any  starchy  substance  admitted  through  the  heater-cock 
on  injector  after  injector  has  been  started  will  aid  in 
stopping  a  bad  leak. 

Q.  54.  Suppose  that,  immediately  after  closing  the 
throttle,  the  .water  disappeared  from  the  water-gauge 
glass,  what  should  be  done? 

A.  Disappearance  of  water  from  water-glass  may  be 
caused  in  various  ways.  The  water  may_be  bad  and 
foamy,  or  the  engine  may  have  insufficient  steam  space, 
thus  causing  the  water  to  prime,  or  the  engineman  may 
have  taken  too  many  chances  on  low  water.  As  soon  as 
the  water  disappears  from  the  glass  no  time  should  be 
lost  before  banking  or  deadening  the  fire.  Injectors 
should  be  kept  at  work  until  the  water  reappears  in  the 
glass  before  fire  is  rekindled. 


THROTTLE-VALVE  DISCONNECTED. 

Q.  55.  What  should  be  done  in  case  a  throttle-stem 
becomes  disconnected  while  the  throttle-valve  is  closed; 
and  if  it  becomes  disconnected  while  the  throttle-valve 
is  open? 

A.  With  a  disconnected  throttle  closed — where  the 
company  requires  the  engineman  to  make  repairs — steam 
must  first  be  blown  off  and  the  dome-cap  raised  to  reach 
the  disconnected  rod.  Not  enough  power  can  be  had 
fcom  the  oil-pipes  to  move  the  modern  engine.  If  she 


EX AMI N A TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     379 

is  equipped  with  a  drifting-valve,  she  can  be  made  to 
move  herself  without  train. 

If  the  throttle  is  disconnected  and  open,  reduce  pressure 
to  a  point  where  engine  will  not  slip,  and  control  the 
train  by  air-brake. 

What  is  often  mistaken  for  a  disconnected  throttle  is 
merely  a  stuck  throttle,  due  to  excessive  lost  motion  of 
parts,  and  occurs  when  giving  full  throttle.  Tapping 
the  throttle-rod  often  releases  it  from  sticking. 


ACCIDENTS  TO  VALVES  OR  VALVE  MOTION. 

Q.  56.  In  the  event  of  a  slide-valye  yoke  or  stem 
becoming  broken  inside  of  the  steam-chest,  how  can  the 
breakage  be  located  ? 

A.  After  satisfying  myself  that  the  eccentrics  and 
visible  parts  of  the  valve  motion  were  intact,  consider  the 
type  of  valve  on  the  engine.  With  a  broken  valve-stem 
or  yoke,  the  valve  is  always  forced  to  the  forward  end 
of  chest.  With  an  outside  admission  piston-valve  or  a 
slide-valve,  place  the  lever  in  the  forward  gear  and  watch 
the  steam  leaving  the  cylinder-cocks.  Reverse  the  lever, 
and  if  t«he  steam  issues  from  both  cocks  on  one  side  and 
from  only  the  back  one  on  the  other,  the  latter  has  the 
disabled  valve. 

With  the  inside  admission,  steam  would  issue  from  the 
front  and  not  from  the  back  cylinder-cock.  Where  relief- 
valves  are  used,  remove  them  first  and  watch  movement 
of  valve. 

Q.  57.    After  locating  a  breakage  of  this  kind,  how 


380  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

should  one  proceed  to  put  the  engine  in  safe  running 
order  ? 

A.  If  the  engine  had  relief -valves  on  front  end  of  chest, 
disconnect  valve-rod;  and,  after  forcing  valve  to  central 
position  to  cover  ports,  clamp  stem  from  one  end  and 
block  with  a  plug  driven  into  relief-valve  of  sufficient 
length  to  hold  valve  in  place,  leave  up  main-rod  and 
proceed.  If  relief -valve  were  on  back  end,  the  chest 
cover  would  not  have  to  be  taken  up,  but  back  end  of 
main  rod  would  have  to  be  disconnected  and  cross-head 
blocked  ahead.  The  disconnected  valve-rod  would  hold 
the  valve  against  forward  end  of  chest. 

Q.  58.  If  a  slide-valve  is  broken,  what  can  be  done  to 
run  the  engine  on  one  side? 

A.  If  it  is  a  balanced-valve  and  broken  so  that  the 
steam-ports  cannot  be  successfully  covered,  slip  a  heavy 
piece  of  sheet  iron  between  valve  and  valve-seat,  and 
block  valve  front  and  back.  The  balance-plate  will 
then  come  down  solid  on  valve  and  prevent  leakage  to 
cylinder. 

With  ordinary  slide  valve  and  similar  conditions,  re- 
move valve  entirely  and  block  with  hard  wood,  having 
the  grain  of  the  wood  crosswise  of  the  seat.  With  the 
sheet  iron  over  the  seat  and  the  chest  filled  with  blocking 
so  that  the  cover  will  close  down  on  it  firmly  and  make 
a  steam-tight  joint,  proceed  on  one  side  without  dis- 
turbing anything  except  the  valve-rod. 

Q.  59.  What  should  be  done  in  case  of  link  saddle-pin 
breaking  ? 

A.  Put  the  lever  in  a  notch  forward  where  one  would 
be  safe  in  starting  a  train.  Then  raise  the  link  on  the 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     381 

disabled  side  to  the  same  level  as  the  good  one,  and 
block  between  top  of  link-block  and  link.  Have  another 
block  ready  of  sufficient  length  to  raise  the  link  enough, 
should  it  be  necessary  to  back  up  the  engine. 

Q.  60.  With  one  link  blocked  up,  what  must  be  guarded 
against  ? 

A.  Reversing  the  engine,  unless  the  disabled  side  has 
been  changed  by  raising  or  lowering  to.  correspond  with 
the  good  side. 

Q.  61.  How  can  it  be  known  if  the  eccentric  has 
slipped  ? 

A.  By  a  lame  exhaust,  or  with  a  bad  slip,  one  of  the 
exhausts  disappearing  entirely,  and  by  watching  the 
cross-head  to  note  when  the  exhaust  takes  place. 

Q.  62.  Having  determined  which  eccentric  has  slipped, 
how  should  it  be  reset? 

A.  Having  located  the  eccentric,  if  it  is  a  go-ahead, 
move  the  engine  so  that  cross-head  will  come  very  near 
to  the  end  of  its  travel  ahead.  Then  move  the  eccentric 
around  pointing  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  back-up, 
leaning  either  toward  or  from  the  pin — which  would 
depend  entirely  on  the  style  of  valve  and  whether  direct 
or  indirect  motion.  As  soon  as  steam  appears  at  front 
cylinder-cock,  tighten  set-screws. 

For  back-up  eccentric,  lever  and  cross-head  will  have 
to  be  placed  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  best  way 
is  to  mark  eccentrics  before  starting,  by  placing  the  lever 
in  forward  notch  and  having  cross-head  at  front  end  of 
travel.  Then  make  a  mark  on  cross-head  and  guide, 
doing  the  same  with  eccentrics  and  straps.  If  from  any 
'cause  an  eccentric  slips  and  engine  is  placed  so  that  mark 


382  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING.^: 

on  cross-head  corresponds  with  that  on  guide,  the  marks 
on  three  of  the  eccentrics  will  correspond  with  those  on 
straps,  while  the  fourth  or  slipped  eccentric's  mark  will 
be  some  distance  away  from  mark  on  its  strap.  By  this 
method  an  eccentric  can  be  set  as  true  as  any  machinist 
can  set  it,  and  there  is  no  guesswork. 

Q.  63.  What  should  be  done  in  case  of  a  broken  eccen- 
tric-strap or  rod  ? 

A.  Take  down  the  other  strap  and  rod,  cover  ports 
and  leave  main-rod  intact. 

Q.  64.  How  should  the  engine  be  disconnected  if  a 
lower  rocker-arm  becomes  broken  ?  If  a  link-block  pin  ? 

A.  Unless  the  link  interferes,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to 
remove  broken  part  of  the  arm,  cover  ports  by  placing 
valve  in  central  position  and  leaving  main-rod  up;  other- 
wise the  eccentric  straps  and  rods  would  have  to  come 
down.  With  a  broken  link  block-pin,  there  is  more  or 
less  danger  of  interference  between  link  and  rocker-arm. 
Take  down  eccentric  straps  and  rods  only,  and  cover 
port. 

ACCIDENTS  TO  RUNNING  GEAR. 

Q.  65.  What  should  be  considered  a  bad  tender  or 
engine-truck  wheel  ? 

A.  One  with  sharp  flange,  or  flat  or  shelled-out  spots 
in  tread  of  wheel,  2^  inches  or  more  in  length. 

Q.  66.  What  should  be  done  if  an  engine-truck  wheel 
or  axle  breaks? 

A.  It  should  be  entirely  removed  or  blocked  up  so 
as  to  have  the  wheel  clear  of  the  "rail,  and  the  truck 


EX  A  MINA  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMO  TION.     383 

frame  should  be  securely  fastened  to  the  engine  frame 
with  chains. 

Q.  67.  What  should  be  done  if  a  tender- truck  wheel  or 
axle  should  break? 

A.  Pursue  the  same  course  as  with  the  engine- truck 
wheel  and  fasten  the  truck  frame  with  chains  to  the 
tender  frame.  Move  slowly  and  cautiously  to  a  point 
where  repairs  can  be  made. 

Q.  68.  How  should  an  engine  be  blocked  for  broken 
engine-truck  spring  or  equalizer?  For  broken  tender- 
truck  spring? 

A.  If  pilot  will  not  be  too  low,  let  truck  frame  ride 
on  boxes;  otherwise,  block  between  top  of  boxes  and 
truck  frame. 

Blocking  for  a  broken  tender  spring  will  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  type  of  truck  used.  Some  have  a  coil  spring 
over  each  axle-box  and  are  easily  taken  care  of;  some 
have  semi-elliptic  springs  with  the  spring  band  against 
the  tender  frame  and  the  ends  of  spring  resting  on  arch- 
bar  over  axle-boxes,  while  others  have  elliptic  or  coil 
springs  supporting  the  truck-bolster  and  resting  on  the 
sand  plank.  With  the  first,  block  over  the  individual 
box;  with  the  second,  between  truck-bolster  and  tender 
frame;  and  with  the  third,  between  truck-bolster  and 
sand  plank. 

Q.  69.  If  it  is  not  necessary  to  take  down  the  main- 
rod  or  disabled  side  of  the  engine,  how  would  one  arrange 
to  lubricate  the  cylinders? 

A.  By  removing  indicator-plugs,  if  the  engine  is 
equipped  with  them,  oiling  through  them  and  replacing 
plugs. 


384  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

If  the  engine  has  no  plugs,  shift  valve  just  enough  to 
show  a  little  steam  at  cylinder-cocks  and  oil  with  the 
lubricator. 

Q:  70.  What  should  be  done  if  a  driving- spring,  spring- 
hanger  of  equalizer  should  break? 

A.  Remove  broken  parts  and  block  over  box  affected 
by  break;  as  to  blocking  equalizers  properly,  one  would 
have  to  be  governed  by  the  type  of  spring  rigging  used. 

Q.  71.  How  can  an  engine  be  moved  if  the  reverse- 
lever  or  reach-rod  were  caught  at  short-cut  off  by  a  broken 
spring  or  hanger? 

A.  By  Disconnecting  the  tumbling- shaft  arm  and 
blocking  over  link  block-pin  with  blocking  that  would 
permit  sufficient  power  to  be  used  to  start  train. 


BLOWS  THROUGH  VALVES  OR  PISTONS. 

Q.  72.  How  can  a  blowing  of  steam  past  a  valve,  cylin- 
der, packing  or  valve  strip  be  distinguished  and  located? 

A.  When  the  valve  has  been  placed  to  cover  both 
steam-ports  and  no  steam  escapes  from  cylinder-cock 
but  escapes  through  exhaust-port  to  stack,  it  indicates 
that  valve  strips  are  down  or  broken  and  permit  steam 
to  escape  through  small  hole  in  valve  to  exhaust-port. 

If  valve  covers  ports  and  steam  appears  at  both  cylin- 
der-cocks, it  indicates  a  cut  valve  or  seat. 

If  piston  is  at  beginning  of  stroke  and  valve  uncovered 
and  steam  escapes  from  cylinder-cocks  at  opposite  end 
from  which  it  is  admitted,  it  indicates  leaky  packing- 
rings  or  cut  cylinder. 


EX AMI N A  TION  OF' ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     385 

A  valve  blow  continues  during  the  entire  travel  of 
valve,  while  a  cylinder  blow  is  strongest  when  piston  is 
at  beginning  of  stroke  and  gradually  diminishes  until 
cut-off  takes  place  as  piston  nears  end  of  stroke. 

Q.  73.  If  a  simple  engine  should  blow  badly  and  be 
unable  to  start  the  train  when  on  the  right-hand  dead 
center,  on  which  side  would  be  the  blow,  generally? 

A.  On  the  left  side,  since  that  is  the  only  power  the 
engine  has  to  move  the  other  side  off  the  dead  center. 

LEAKY  THROTTLE,  STEAM-PIPES  OR  DRY  PIPE. 

Q.  74.  If  the  throttle  were  closed  and  steam  came  out 
of  the  cylinder-cocks  what  might  be  the  cause  ? 

A.  Leaky  throttle  or  dry  pipe. 

Q.  75.  Is  it  possible  to  distinguish  between  a  leaky 
throttle  and  a  leaky  dry  pipe  ? 

A.  Yes;  a  leaky  throttle  will  show  dry  steam  only, 
while  with  a  leaky  dry  pipe  more  or  less  water  will  pass 
out  of  the  cylinder-cocks  with  the  steam  when  the  engine 
is  standing,  and  when  the  engine  is  working  she  appears 
to  be  working  water  all  the  time. 

Q.  76.  What  effect  has  leaky  steam-pipes,  and  how 
should  they  be  tested? 

A.  They  interfere  with  the  draft  on  the  fire  and  prevent 
the  engine  from  making  steam. 

Place  the  lever  in  the  center,  set  the  air-brake,  open 
throttle,  and  watch  the  joints  of  steam  pipes  top  and 
bottom.  The  proper  test  is  the  hydraulic  test  made  in 
the  shop. 

Q.  77.  How  should  the  test  for  a  leaky  exhaust-pipe 
joint  or  a  leaky  nozzle  joint  be  made  ? 

A.   By  placing  the  level  forward  or  back,  moving  the 


386  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

engine  slowly  with  brakes  set,  and  watching  the  joints. 
Cinders  never  accumulate  around  such  leaks  and  are 
always  driven  away  from  them. 


ACCIDENTS  TO   VARIOUS  PARTS. 

Q.  78.  How  should  hot  bearings  be  treated  ? 

A.  They  should  be  cooled  down  gradually,  so  as  to 
prevent  undue  strain  on  the  metal.  The  cause  should  be 
ascertained,  whether  defective  lubrication  or  poor  work- 
manship, in  order  to  guard  against  a  recurrence  of  the 
difficulty. 

Q.  79.   What  should  be  done  if  a  steam-chest  cracks? 

A.  If  the  crack  is  not  too  serious,  temporary  relief  can 
be  obtained  by  driving  wedges  between  chest-bolts  and 
chest. 

Q.  80.   What  should  be  done  if  a  steam-chest  breaks? 

A.  That  depends  on  the  type.  With  the  chest  com- 
monly used,  take  up  the  chest  cover,  insert  blocking  in 
the  steam  passages  to  chest  and  bolt  the  cover  down 
firmly  upon  them. 

Q.  81.  If  a  link  lifter  or  arm  were  broken  what  bhould 
be  done? 

A.   Block  the  same  as  for  broken  link  saddle-pin. 

Q.  82.  If  the  reverse-lever  or  reach-rod  should  break, 
what  should  be  done? 

A.  Follow  the  same  method  as  for  broken  link  saddle- 
pin. 

Q.  83.  What  should  be  done  if  the  piston,  cross-head, 
connecting-rod,  or  crank-pin  is  bent  or-broken  ? 


EXAMINA TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    387 

A.  If  the  piston  is  broken  or  the  piston-rod  bent, 
remove  both,  disconnect  valve-stem  only,  and  cover  ports. 

With  a  broken  cross-head  or  bent  or  broken  main-rod, 
the  main-rod  would  have  to  come  down.  Then,  push 
piston  ahead  or  back — this  depends  on  the  type  of  engine 
— and  shift  valve  to  force  steam  against  piston  in  the 
direction  in  which  it  was  desired  to  hold  the  piston, 
clamp  valve,  and  block  the  cross-head  as  an  additional 
precaution. 

With  a  broken  crank-pin  the  rod  would  not  have  to 
come  down,  but  could  rest  on  the  yoke  6r  guide.  First 
ascertain  in  the  case  of  a  piston-valve  whether  it  is  an 
inside  or  outside  admission  before  shifting,  as  the  move- 
ment of  the  former  is  directly  opposite  to  that  of  the 
latter. 

Q.  84.  What  should  be  done  if  a  safety-valve  spring 
breaks  ? 

A.  Remove  the  spring  and  block  between  valve  and 
cap,  allowing  the  other  valve  to  do  the  work. 

Q.  85.  How  can  an  engine  be  brought  in  with  a  broken 
front  end  or  stack? 

A.  By  boarding  up  and  by  protecting  it  with  the 
canvas  curtain  on  the  cab.  Placing  a  barrel  on  smoke- 
arch  in  lieu  of  a  stack  will  answer  the  purpose,  but  on  a 
road  with  heavy  traffic  such  expedients  are  not  prac- 
ticable. 

Q.  86.  What  should  be  done  when  a  frame  is  broken 
between  the  main-driver  and  cylinder? 

A.  The  safest  plan  is  to  be  towed  in  dead.  The  other 
alternative  is  to  disconnect  the  disabled  side  and  bring 
the  engine  in  light,  because  an  attempt  to  bring  in  part 


388  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

of  the  train  might  damage  the  previously  uninjured 
side. 

Q.  87.  What  should  be  done  when  there  is  a  loose  or 
lost  cylinder  key  ? 

A.  If  the  key  is  loose  and  can  be  shimmed  up,  it  is 
safe  to  go  on.  If  key  is  lost  and  nothing  available  in  its 
place,  disconnect  that  side  to  prevent  further  damage. 

Q.  88.  What  should  be  done  if  a  frame  is  broken  back 
of  main  driver? 

A.  Take  down  side  rods  on  both  sides  back  of  main 
driver  and  proceed. 

Q.  89.  In  case  of  broken  side  rods,  what  should  be 
done? 

A.  Take  down  corresponding  rod  on  opposite  side 
also,  and,  if  it  is  a  consolidation,  mogul,  or  lo-wheel 
engine,  and  the  intermediate  rod  is  broken,  all  side  rods 
would  have  to  come  down. 

Q.  90.  What  can  be  done  if  the  intermediate  siderods 
were  broken  on  a  consolidation  engine,  having  the  eccen- 
tric on  the  axle  ahead  of  main  wheel? 

A.  There  is  nothing  to  be  done  but  to  be  towed  in,  unless 
only  one  side  is  broken,  when  it  would  be  possible  to  bring 
the  engine  in  under  her  own  steam  on  one  side,  with  the 
disabled  side  having  its  valve  disconnected  and  ports 
covered,  but  this  is  not  advisable,  inasmuch  as  the  engine 
might  slip  and  break  the  other  intermediate  rod  and  do 
incalculable  damage.  All  side  rods  ahead  of  the  inter- 
mediate on  both  sides  would  have  to  come  down. 

Q.  91.  Should  one  of  the  forward  ties  of  a  10- wheel 
engine  break,  what  must  be  done  to  bring  the  engine  in  ? 

A.  Run  the  wheel  upon  a  wedge  so" as  to  clear  the  rail 


EX AMI N A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     389 

under  all  conditions;  remove  the  oil-cellar  and  fit  a  block 
in  its  place;  then  place  another  block  between  bottom 
of  box  and  pedestal  binder.  Also  block  under  the  equali- 
zers nearest  the  disabled  wheel  to  take  the  weight  off  the 
journal. 

Q.  92.  What  is  a  good  method  of  raising  a  wheel  when 
jacks  are  not  available? 

A.  To  run  them  up  on  frogs  or  wedges. 

Q.  93.  How  can  it  be  known  whether  the  wedges  are 
set  up  too  tight  and  the  driving-box  sticks,  and  in  what 
manner  can  they  be  pulled  down? 

A.  If  the  wedges  are  set  up  too  tight,  the  boxes  will 
heat,  the  engine  will  ride  hard  and  have  a  rough,  jerky, 
up-and-down  motion. 

Drawing  down  the  wedge  bolt  snug  and  running  the 
wheel  upon  blocks  or  wedges  and  off  again  will  generally 
bring  down  a  wedge  as  the  box  drops  down.  A  little  oil 
or  kerosene  between  wedge  and  pedestal  will  often  be  a 
help. 

REPORTING  WORK  TO  BE  DONE. 

Q.  94.  In  reporting  work  on  any  wheel  or  truck  on 
engine  or  tender,  how  should  they  be  designated  ? 

A.  It  should  be  designated  as  engine-truck,  driver  or 
tender-truck  wheel,  giving  the  exact  location  and  side. 

Some  roads  have  adopted  a  method  which  prevents 
mistake  by  numbering  the  wheels,  beginning  at  the  forward 
engine-truck  wheel  on  right  side,  going  around  the  tender 
and  ending  with  engine-truck  wheel  on  left  side,  in  con- 
secutive numbers,  as  wheel  No.  i,  No.  2,  No.  3,  etc.  On 


390  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

an  8-wheel  engine  the  right  forward  engine  truck-wheel 
would  be  designated  No.  i,  while  the  left  forward  would 
be  No.  1 6,  according  to  this  system. 

Q.  95.  What  are  some  of  the  various  causes  for  pounds  ? 

A.  Wedges  not  properly  adjusted,  loose  pedestal  braces, 
lost  motion  between  guides  and  cross-heads,  badly  fitting 
driving  brasses,  improper  keying  of  rod  brasses,  engine 
and  rods  out  of  tram,  loose  piston  on  rod  or  loose  follower 
bolts. 

POUNDING. 

Q.  96.  How  can  a  pound  in  driving-box  wedges  or  rod 
brasses  be  located  ? 

A.  By  placing  the  right  main-pin  on  the  upper  forward 
eighth,  which  brings  the  left  main-pin  to  the  upper  back 
eighth.  Then  by  blocking  the  drivers,  giving  the  cylinders 
a  little  steam  and  reversing  the  engine  under  pressure, 
both  sides  can  be  tested  at  the  same  time. 

Q.  97.  When  should  cross-heads  or  guides  be  reported 
to  be  lined  ? 

A.  When  there  is  sufficient  lost  motion  between  cross- 
head  and  guides  to  cause  a  jumping  motion  when  the 
pin  is  leaving  either  dead  center  and  the  cross-head  is 
beginning  the  return  stroke. 

Q.  98.  When  should  driving-box  wedges  be  reported 
to  be  lined  ? 

A.  When  the  wedge  has  been  forced  up  as  high  as  it 
can  go  and  lost  motion  appears  between  wedge  and  box. 
It  should  then  be  reported  lined  down.  Lining-up  is 
sometimes  reported  by  enginemen,  but  this  is  incorrect. 


EX AMI N A TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     391 

Q.  99.  When  should  rod  brasses  be  reported  to  be 
filed? 

A.  When  there  is  sufficient  lost  motion  to  cause  pound- 
ing. 

Q.  100.  When  should  rod  brasses  be  reported  to  be 
lined? 

A.  When  the  key  is  down  to  a  point  where  it  cannot 
be  forced  down  further  to  prevent  brass  working  in 
strap. 

Q.  1 01.  When  should  lost  motion  between  engine  and 
tender  be  taken  up? 

A.  When  there  is  }  inch  or  more  lost  motion  between 
engine  and  tender,  causing  an  undue  strain  on  the  draw- 
bar, by  the  forward  and  backward  lurching  of  the  engine 
while  in  motion,  or  the  forward  lurch  in  starting.  It 
also  causes  severe  strain  on  draft-rods. 

HOW  THE  INJECTOR  WORKS. 

Q.  102.  Describe  the  principle  on  which  an  injector 
works. 

A.  The  principle  on  which  an  injector  works  is  a  com- 
bination of  forces,  velocity  and  an  induced  current  of 
water  passing  through  suitably  proportioned  tubes, 
designated  as  steam-nozzle,  combining  tube  and  delivery- 
nozzle.  Under  a  given  pressure  the  velocity  of  escaping 
steam  is  much  greater  than  that  of  water,  which  would  be 
ejected  were  a  hole  opened  in  the  boiler  below  the  water- 
line.  The  reduced  orifice  in  the  steam-nozzle  naturally 
increases  the  velocity  of  the  escaping  steam  as  it  enters 
the  combining  tube  where  it  entrains  the  feed-water  and 


392  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

condenses.  As  the  escaping  steam  is  being  condensed 
it  has  lost  none  of  its  velocity  except  that  due  to  friction 
of  the  pipes  through  which  it  passes,  consequently  it 
has  a  vastly  greater  penetrating  force  after  condensation 
than  the  resisting  force  in  the  boiler.  Leaving  the  com- 
bining tube,  the  condensed  steam  and  feed-water  now 
pass  through  the  delivery-nozzle  into  the  branch  pipe, 
where  the  ram-like  force  imparted  to  the  water  by  the 
velocity  of  the  escaping  steam  unseats  the  boiler 
check  and  permits  the  free  flow  of  water  to  the 
boiler. 

Q.  103.  What  is  generally  the  cause  of  failure  of  the 
second  injector,  and  what  should  be  done  to  obviate 
this  failure? 

A.  Infrequent  use  causes  the  various  parts  to  corrode 
and  check  to  lime  over  and  stick.  Frequent  use  and  a 
trial  before  starting  on  trip  will  guard  against  such 
failures. 

Q.  104.  What  are  the  advantages  of  the  combination 
boiler  check? 

A.  It  reduces  the  number  of  boiler-check  and  injector 
failures. 

Q.  105.  If  an  injector  stops  working  while  on  the  road 
what  should  be  done? 

A.  First  ascertain  the  cause  before  applying  the  remedy. 
It  may  be  due  to  a  disconnected  and  closed  tank-valve, 
clogged  strainers,  loose  coupling  in  feed-pipe,  which 
destroys  the  vacuum  necessary  to  raise  the  water  when 
starting  a  lifting  injector,  stuck  check,  etc. 

Q.  1 06.  How  can  a  disconnected  tank- valve  be  opened 
without  stopping? 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     393 

A.    By  closing  the  heater-valve  and  forcing  the  steam 
from  injector  back  into  tank  to  dislodge  valve. 


STEAM  HEATING. 

Q.  107.  If  the  steam-heat  gauge  showed  the  required 
pressure,  and  cars  were  not  being  heated  properly,  how 
should  one  proceed  to  locate  the  trouble? 

A.  First  make  sure  that  the  connections  on  the  cars 
were  all  coupled  and  their  respective  valves  opened  to 
the  rear  end  of  train.  If  no  steam  appeared  at  rear  car, 
examine  each  angle-cock  or  valve,  and.  if  these  were 
open,  look  for  the  trouble  at  the  regulator  reducing- 
valve. 

Q.  1 08.  How  does  the  steam-heat  reducing- valve  con- 
trol the  pressure  ? 

A.  By  suitably  adjusted  springs  and  valves,  which 
restrict  the  steam  passages  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  tension  of  the  springs  exerted  upon  the  valves. 

ABUSE  OF  AN  ENGINE. 

Q.  109.   What  constitutes  abuse  of  an  engine? 

A.  Improper  care,  running  with  parts  loose  that  could 
be  readily  made  tight,  working  at  a  longer  cut-off  than 
necessary,  pumping  the  water  irregularly  or  in  greater 
quantities  than  required.  Running  with  fire  door  open, 
unnecessarily  neglecting  the  adjustment  of  draft-appliances 
and  failing  to  report  needed  repairs. 

Q.  1 10.  How  are  accidents  and  breakdowns  best  pre- 
vented ? 


394  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

A.  By  frequent  and  careful  inspection  before  starting 
and  during  each  trip. 

Q.  in.  What  are  the  duties  to  be  performed  by  an 
engineer  when  giving  up  his  engine  at  the  terminal  ? 

A.  To  thoroughly  inspect  the  engine  and  report  all 
defects  in  an  intelligent  manner. 

Q.  112.  In  what  manner  should  an  engine  be  inspected 
after  arrival  at  terminal? 

A.  All  running  gear,  frames,  cylinders,  saddles,  bolts, 
wheels,  fire-box,  smoke-arch,  and  any  other  parts  of  the 
engine  should  be  thoroughly  examined  and  all  defects 
correctly  reported.  No  superficial  examination  is  suffi- 
cient. 

Q.  113.  In  reporting  work  on  an  engine,  is  it  sufficient 
to  do  it  in  a  general  way,  such  as  saying  "  Injector  won't 
work,"  "  Lubricator  won't  work,"  "  Pump  won't  work," 
"  Engine  blows,"  etc.  ? 

A.  No;  he  should  be  explicit  and  assign  a  cause  for 
every  failure,  so  as  to  assist  the  shop  force  in  remedying 
the  defect. 

FIRE-BOX  QUESTIONS. 

Q.  114.  What  causes  the  drumming  sound  sometimes 
heard  in  the  fire-box  of  a  soft-coal  burning  locomotive? 

A .  The  combination  of  the  combustion  gases  in  a  form 
that  makes  a  series  of  minute  explosions  creating  the 
drumming  sound. 

Q.  115.  How  can  the  disagreeable  noise  be  stopped? 

A .  By  closing  a  damper  of  putting  the  fire  door  on  the 
latch. 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    395 

Q.  116.  What  are  the  principal  causes  that  prevent  a 
locomotive  boiler  from  steaming  freely? 

A.  Badly  adjusted  draft  appliances,  leaky  joints  in 
steam-pipes,  tubes  choked  up,  too  much  piston  clear- 
ance, valves  and  piston-packing  blowing,  and  irregular 
boiler  feeding,  or  inferior  firing,  and  poor  fuel. 

PERIODS  OF  EXHAUST. 

Q.  117.  How  often  does  an  ordinary  locomotive  exhaust 
steam  during  a  revolution  of  the  driving-wheels,  and  at 
what  periods  do  the  exhausts  take  place? 

A.  Four  times.  Beginning  with  the  right-hand  piston 
moving  from  the  forward  center  and  the  left  crank  set 
one-quarter  behind  the  right-hand  crank.  When  the 
right-hand  cross-head  has  moved  back  to  nearly  the 
middle  of  the  guides,  the  left-hand  exhausts  on  forward 
stroke;  when  the  right-hand  cross-head  reaches  close 
to  back  of  guides,  the  right-hand  cylinder  exhausts  on 
backward  stroke;  when  the  cross-head  returning  reaches 
near  the  middle  of  the  guides,  the  left-hand  cylinder 
exhausts  on  backward  stroke,  and  when  the  cross-head 
reaches  close  to  the  forward  end  of  the  guides,  the  right- 
hand  cylinder  exhausts  on  the  forward  stroke.  That 
completes  the  cycle. 

THIRD  YEAR  EXAMINATION. 
AIR-BRAKE  QUESTIONS. 

Q.  i.  Explain  how  an  air-pump  should  be  started  to 
run  on  the  road. 


396  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

A.  It  should  be  started  slowly  to  permit  the  condensa- 
tion to  be  drained  off.  The  lubricator  should  be  started 
carefully,  and  the  pump  worked  slowly  until  about  40  Ibs. 
have  been  accumulated  in  the  main  reservoir  to  cushion 
the  steam  and  air-piston  of  the  pump.  Then  the  throttle 
should  be  opened  wider,  giving  a  speed  of  about  one 
hundred  and  thirty  or  one  hundred  and  forty  single 
strokes  per  minute.  The  amount  of  work  being  done 
really  governs  the  speed  of  the  pump. 

Q.  2.  How  should  the  steam  end  of  the  pump  be  oiled  ? 

A.  By  the  sight-feed  lubricator,  with  a  good  quality 
of  valve  oil,  and  at  the  rate  of  about  one  drop  per  minute. 
This  amount  will  vary  with  the  condition  of  the  pump 
and  the  work  being  done. 

Q.  3.  How  should  air  end  of  a  pump  be  oiled,  and 
what  lubricant  should  be  used? 

A.  High-grade  valve  oil,  containing  good  lubricating 
qualities  and  no  sediment  should  be  used.  A  good 
swab  on  the  piston-rod  will  help  out  a  great  deal.  Oil 
should  be  used  in  the  air-cylinder  of  the  pump  spar- 
ingly but  continuously,  and  it  should  be  introduced  on 
the  down  stroke,  when  pump  is  running  slowly,  through 
the  little  cup  provided  for  that  purpose,  and  not  through 
the  air-suction  valves.  An  automatic  oil-cup,  such  as  has 
-recently  come  into  practice,  is  preferable  to  hand  oiling. 

Q.  4.  When  first  admitting  steam  to  the  gj-inch  pump, 
in  what  direction  does  the  main  valve  move  ? 

A .  If  the  main  piston  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  cylin- 
der, as  it  usually  is  after  steam  has  been  shut  off  and 
gravity  controls  it,  the  main  valve  will  move  to  the  posi- 
tion to  the  right. 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.   397 

Q.  5.  With  the  main  valve  to  the  right,  which  end  of 
the  cylinder  will  receive  the  steam? 

A.  The  bottom  or  lower  end. 

Q.  6.  When  the  main  piston  completes  its  up  stroke, 
explain  how  its  motion  is  reversed  so  as  to  make  the 
downward  stroke. 

A.  When  the  main  piston  reaches  and  is  nearly  at 
the  top  of  its  stroke,  the  reversing-plate  catches  the 
shoulder  on  the  re  versing- valve  rod,  moving  the  re- 
versing-rod  and  valve  to  their  upper  positions,  where 
steam  is  admitted  behind  the  large  head  of  the  main 
valve,  forcing  this  main  valve  over  to  the  left,  carry- 
ing with  it  the  slide-valve  which  admits  steam  to  the 
top  end  of  the  cylinder  and  exhausts  it  from  the  bottom 
end,  thereby  reversing  the  stroke  of  the  pump. 

Q.  7.  Explain  the  operation  of  the  air  end  of  the  9^- 
inch  air-pump  on  an  up  stroke  and  on  a  down  stroke. 

A.  The  air-piston  is  directly  connected  with  the 
steam-piston,  and  any  movement  of  the  steam-piston 
will  consequently  be  transmitted  directly  to  the  air- 
piston.  When  the  steam-piston  moves  up,  the  air- 
piston  will,  of  course,  go  with  it,  thus  leaving  an  empty 
space  or  a  vacuum  in  the  lower  end  of  the  air-cylinder, 
underneath  the  air-piston.  Atmospheric  air  rushes 
through  the  air-inlet,  raising  the  lower  receiving-valve, 
and  filling  the  bottom  end  of  the  cylinder  with  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  At  the  same  time  the  air  above  the  air- 
piston  will  be  compressed.  The  pressure  thus  formed 
holds  the  upper  receiving-valve  to  its  seat,  and  when 
a  little  greater  than  the  air  in  the  main  reservoir,  the 
upper  discharge-valve  will  lift  and  allow  the  compressed 


39$  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

air  to  flow  into  the  main  reservoir.  When  the  piston 
reaches  the  top  of  the  stroke  its  motion  is  reversed,  and 
on  the  down  stroke  the  vacuum  in  the  upper  end  of  the 
air-cylinder  is  supplied  by  atmospheric  pressure  passing 
through  the  upper  receiving- valve.  The  main  reservoir 
pressure  is  held  by  the  upper  discharge-valve,  and  the 
air  being  compressed  in  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  holds 
the  bottom  receiving-valve  to  its  seat,  and  when  com- 
pressed sufficiently,  forces  the  lower  discharge-valve  open 
and  passes  to  the  main  reservoir. 

Q.  8.  Give  some  of  the  causes  of  the  pump  running 
hot? 

A.  First,  air-cylinder  packing-rings  leaking.  Second, 
discharge-valves  stuck  closed  or  the  discharge-passages 
so  obstructed  that  the  pump  will  be  pumping  against 
high  air-pressure  continually.  Third,  poor  lubrication. 
Fourth,  high  speed.  Fifth,  discharge  or  receiving  air 
valves  leaking.  Sixth,  air  piston-rod  packing  leaking. 

Q.  9.  If  the  pump  runs  hot  while  on  the  road,  how 
would  you  proceed  to  cool  it? 

A.  First,  reduce  the  speed  of  the  pump,  and  look 
for  leaks  in  the  train-line.  Second,  make  sure  that  the 
packing  around  the  piston-rod  is  not  too  tight  and  in 
bad  condition.  Third,  see  that  the  main  reservoir  is 
properly  drained.  If  the  pump  still  runs  hot  it  should 
be  reported  at  the  end  of  the  trip. 

Q.  10.  If  the  pump  stops,  can  you  tell  if  the  trouble 
is  in  the  pump  or  in  the  governor? 

A.  Yes.  It  may  be  tested  by  opening  the  drain- 
cock  in  the  steam-passage  at  the  pump,  and  noting 
whether  there  is  a  free  flow  of  steam;  if  so,  there  is  a 


EXAMINA TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     399 

free  passage  through  the  governor  and  the  trouble  is 
not  there. 

Q.  ii.  State  the  common  causes  for  the  pump  stop- 
ping. 

A.  There  are  several  reasons.  First,  it  may  be  stopped 
by  the  governor  being  out  of  order;  second,  the  valves 
may  be  dry  and  need  lubrication;  third,  nuts  may  be 
loose  or  broken  on  the  piston-rod  or  one  of  the  pistons 
pulled  off.  Fourth,  the  reversing-valve  rod  may  be  broken 
or  bent,  or  the  reversing-plate  may  be  loose,  or  the 
shoulder  on  the  reversing-valve  rod  or  the  reversing- 
plate  may  be  so  badly  worn  as  not  to  catch  and  perform 
their  proper  functions.  Fifth,  nuts  holding  the  main- 
valve  piston  may  be  loose  or  broken  off.  Sixth,  excessive 
blow  past  the  packing-rings  of  the  main  valve. 

Q.  12.  Should  a  pump  make  a  much  quicker  down 
stroke  than  up,  what  effect  does  it  indicate  ? 

A.  An  upper  discharge  air  valve  leaking,  a  lower 
receiving  air  valve  stuck  to  its  seat,  or  broken. 

Q.  13.  Should  it  make  a  much  quicker  up  stroke,  what 
defect  does  it  indicate? 

A.  The  lower  discharge-valve  leaking  badly,  or  the 
upper  receiving-valve  is  probably  broken,  or  stuck  to 
its  seat. 

Q.  14.  Should  an  engineer  observe  the  workings  of 
a  pump  on  the  road,  and  report  repairs  needed,  and  do 
you  consider  yourself  competent? 

A.  Yes. 


400  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 


GOVERNOR. 

Q.  15.  What  is  the  function  of  the  air-pump  governor? 

A.  To  propexiy  regulate  the  pressure  in  the  main 
reservoir. 

Q.  1 6.  Explain  how  the  governor  operates. 

A.  The  governor  is  an  automatic  arrangement  for 
admitting  and  closing  off  steam  to  the  air-pump,  and 
is  actuated  by  air-pressure.  The  steam-valve,  which 
shuts  off  and  opens  up  the  steam  passageway  to  the 
pump,  is  controlled  by  an  air-piston  and  spring.  When 
air-pressure  is  admitted  above  the  piston,  it  forces  the 
piston  down,  closing  off  the  steam  to  the  pump.  When 
the  air-pressure  is  exhausted  from  above  the  piston, 
the  spring  forces  the  piston  up  and  allows  steam  pressure 
to  pass  to  the  pump.  The  admission  and  exhaust  of 
the  air  to  this  piston  is  controlled  by  a  diaphragm  and 
spring.  The  air  from  the  main  reservoir  enters  the 
body  of  the  governor  underneath  the  diaphragm,  which 
is  held  by  a  spring  of  given  tension,  depending  on  the 
pressure  desired  in  the  main  reservoir.  While  the  main 
reservoir  pressure  is  less  than  the  pressure  the  governor 
is  set  for,  this  diaphragm  is  held  down  by  the  spring, 
and  the  air  can  pass  no  farther  than  a  small  pin-val^e 
attached  to  it,  but  when  the  main  reservoir  pressure  over- 
comes the  tension  of  the  spring,  it  raises  the  diaphragm, 
unseats  the  pin-valve  and  allows  the  air  to  flow  to  the 
top  of  the  air-piston,  shutting  off  the  pump.  During 
the  time  the  air  is  acting  on  this  piston  some  of  it  escapes 
through  a  large  leakage  port,  which  is  always  open. 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    401 

When  the  main  reservoir  pressure  drops  below  the 
pressure  the  spring  is  adjusted  to,  the  spring  forces 
the  diaphragm  down,  seating  the  pin-valve  and  allowing 
the  air  on  top  of  the  piston  to  escape  to  the  atmosphere, 
through  the  small  vent-port. 

Q.  17.  Why  is  it  necessary  that  the  relief- port  in  the 
improved  governor  be  kept  open? 

A.  If  this  port  is  not  kept  open,  the  air-pressure, 
which  holds  the  piston  down,  cannot  escape  when  the 
diaphragm  valve  closes,  and  consequently  the  governor 
will  not  operate  the  pump  properly. 

Q.  1 8.  Where  would  you  look  for  the  cause,  if  the 
governor  allowed  a  very  high  main-reservoir  pressure  to 
accumulate,  especially  in  winter  weather? 

A.  The  main-reservoir  pressure  may  not  reach  the 
governor,  due  to  the  stoppage  in  the  pipe  or  in  the 
union  at  the  governor.  This  may  also  be  due  to  the 
space  on  top  of  the  diaphragm  being  filled  with  dirt. 
If  the  air  is  getting  to  the  diaphragm-valve,  and  is  so 
indicated  by  the  blow  at  the  leakage  port,  the  trouble 
must  then  be  due  to  the  drip-pipe  being  stopped  up  or 
frozen,  thereby  preventing  the  air  and  steam,  which 
leak  in  under  the  air-piston,  from  escaping. 

Q.  19.  If  the  pin-valve  in  the  governor  leaks,  what 
effect  will  it  have  on  the  pump? 

A.  It  will  allow  a  certain  amount  of  air-pressure  to 
flow  in  on  top  of  the  air-piston.  If  the  leak  is  greater 
than  the  escape  from  the  little  leakage  port,  the  under 
pressure  will  accumulate  and  caiise  the  governor  to 
slow  down  or  completely  stop  the  pump. 

Q.  20.  How  can  you  tell  if  the  pin-valve  leaks? 


402  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

A.  It  will  blow  continually  at  the  leakage  port  while 
the  pump  is  running. 

MAIN  RESERVOIR. 

Q.  21.  What  harm  is  there  in  allowing  water  to  ac- 
cumulate in  the  main  reservoir? 

A.  It  reduces  main-reservoir  capacity  or  space  which 
should  be  employed  in  storing  air-pressure  for  releasing 
and  recharging  the  brakes.  The  moisture  also  is  carried 
in  the  air,  goes  back  into  the  train-pipe  and  gets  into 
the  triples,  where  it  freezes  in  cold  weather. 

Q.  22.  How  often  should  the  main  reservoir  be  drained  ? 

A.  After  each  trip. 

Q.  23.  Where  does  the  main-reservoir  pressure  begin 
and  end  ? 

A.  It  begins  at  the  top  side  of  the  discharge-valves  in 
the  pump  and  ends  on  the  top  side  of  the  rotary-valve  of 
the  engineer's  brake-valve. 

Q.  24.  What  is  the  main  reservoir  used  lor? 

A.  It  is  a  storehouse,  or  storage-tank,  for  air-pressure, 
to  charge  and  recharge  the  air-brakes. 

Q.  25.  What  pressure  is  usually  carried  in  the  main 
reservoir  ? 

A.  Ninety  pounds  with  the  yo-pound  brake,  and  about 
130  pounds  with  the  high-speed  or  no-pound  brake. 

ENGINEER'S  VALVE. 

Q.  26.  What  kinds  of  engineer's  brake  and  equalizing- 
discharge  valves  are  used? 


EXAMINA  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    403 

A.  Three  forms;  the  D-8  with  the  excess  pressure 
valve,  the  D-5  with  the  poppet-valve  form  of  feed-valve, 
and  the  E-6,  F-6  or  G-6  with  the  slide-valve  feed-valve 
attachment.  These  three  forms  are  all  of  the  equalizing 
discharge  type,  and  have  respectively  excess  pressure 
valve,  the  poppet-valve  feed-valve,  and  the  slide-valve 
feed-valve.  The  initial  and  figure  designations  given 
the  forms  of  valves  are  those  used  in  the  different  cata- 
logues of  the  manufacturer. 

Q.  27.  How  is  the  amount  of  excess  pressure  regulated 
when  the  G-6  brake-valve  is  used? 

A.  The  slide-valve  feed-valve  attachment  is  adjusted 
by  the  regulating  spring  to  control  the  train-line  pressure 
when  the  brake-valve  handle  is  in  running  position.  The 
air-pump  governor  is  adjusted  to  control  the  amount  of 
pressure  to  be  carried  in  the  main  reservoir.  The  dif- 
ference between  these  two  pressures  is  what  is  commonly 
known  as  "  excess  pressure,"  and  is  used  for  releasing 
and  recharging  the  brakes. 

Q.  28.  How  is  the  excess  pressure  regulated  with  the 
D-8  brake-valve  ? 

A.  With  the  excess- pressure  valve  spring.  This  valve 
will  give  the  amount  of  excess  pressure  desired  by  placing 
behind  the  valve  a  spring  of  sufficient  tension  or  resist- 
ance to  cause  the  difference  between  the  main  reservoir 
pressure  and  the  train-pipe  pressure.  For  instance,  if 
20  pounds  excess  pressure  is  desired,  the  spring  is  so 
prepared  that  when  the  brake-valve  handle  is  in  running 
position  the  main-reservoir  pressure  passing  to  the  train- 
pipe  will  meet  a  resistance  of  20  pounds,  thus  giving  20 
pounds  more  in  the  main  reservoir  than  in  the  train-line. 


404  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

Q.  29.  How  should  the  feed-valve  of  a  G-6  brake-valve 
be  cleaned  ? 

A.  The  stop-cock  in  the  train-pipe  under  the  brake- 
valve  should  be  closed,  and  all  train -line  pressure  drawn 
off  the  brake-valve  with  the  handle  in  service  position, 
thus  eliminating  all  chance  of  the  parts  being  roughly 
moved  or  injured  when  the  valve  attachment  is  taken 
apart.  Then  remove  the  large  cap  nut,  and  take  out 
the  piston  spring  and  slide-valve.  Clean  these  parts 
carefully,  taking  care  that  no  lint  or  dirt  remains  on  the 
parts.  Oil  the  slide-valve  and  its  seat  very  sparingly 
with  a  good  quality  of  oil,  then  replace  the  parts  carefully. 
Next  remove  the  diaphragm-valve,  clean  it  carefully, 
.taking  especial  care  not  to  bruise  or  scratch  its  ground 
surface.  The  same  care  should  be  exercised  in  cleaning 
the  diaphragm- valve  seat,  observing  that  none  of  the 
small  ports  are  stopped  or  clogged  with  dirt  or  foreign 
matter.  No  oil  is  necessary  on  the  diaphragm  valve  and 
its  seat.  As  a  rule,  it  is  unnecessary  to  remove  the  regu- 
lating spring  and  diaphragm,  but  when  it  is  necessary 
it  should  be  done  by  the  repair-man,  and  not  when  the 
engine  is  in  service  on  the  road  if  it  can  be  avoided. 
In  fact,  all  work  possible  should  be  done  on  the  brake- 
valve  by  the  air-brake  machinist,  either  in  the  round- 
house or  machine-shop. 

Q.  30.   Name  the  different  positions  of  the  brake-valve. 

A.  Full  release,  running,  lap,  service  application,  and 
emergency  application. 

Q.  31.  In  what  position  of  the  brake-valve  is  there 
direct  communication  between  the  main  reservoir  and 
tr^iin-pipe  ? 


r      EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     405 

A.  The  first  or  full  release  position. 

Q.  32.  Is  there  no  other  position  of  the  brake- valve  in 
which  the  air  may  pass  from  the  main  reservoir  to  the 
train-line  ? 

A.  Yes;  running  position.  However,  in  running  posi- 
tion the  air  passes  indirectly,  or  through  the  passages  and 
ports  of  the  feed-valve  attachment,  in  order  to  get  from 
the  main  reservoir  to  the  train-line. 

Q.  33.  When  making  a  service  application,  do  you  draw 
air  direct  from  the  train-pipe? 

A.  No.  In  service  application  the  engineer  draws  air 
directly  from  the  small  equalizing  reservoir  and  from  the 
chamber  on  top  of  the  equalizing-piston.  This  reduction 
causes  a  difference  in*  pressures  acting  on  the  piston,  and 
the  train-line  pressure  under  the  equalizing-piston  being 
greater  causes  the  piston  to  rise  and  discharge  train-line 
pressure  at  the  angle  fitting  of  the  brake-valve  until  such 
time  as  the  latter  pressure  becomes  lower  than  that 
remaining  on  top  of  the  piston,  when  the  piston  will 
descend,  closing  off  the  discharge  of  train-line  pres- 
sure. 

Q.  34.  With  the  G-6  brake-valve  in  running  position, 
if  the  black  hand  of  the  gauge  goes  up  and  equalizes  with 
the  red  hand,  what  is  the  defect? 

A.  As  the  black  hand  indicates  train-line  pressure, 
and  the  red  hand  main-reservoir  pressure,  the  train-line 
pressure  is  evidently  being  increased,  due  to  the  leakage 
of  main-reservoir  pressure  coming  into  it.  This  leakage 
of  main-reservoir  pressure  into  the  train-line  pressure  may 
be  due  to  either  a  leaky  rotary-valve  or  leaky  body  gasket. 
Also,  there  may  be  a  leakage  in  the  feed-valve  attachment 


406  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

past  the  supply-valve,  or  in  the  attachment  gasket,  or  the 
regulating  spring  may  be  improperly  adjusted. 

Q.  35.  How  can  it  be  ascertained  which  one  of  these 
defects  is  causing  the  trouble  ? 

A.  Discharge  all  air  from  the  brake-valve.  Place  the 
brake  valve  handle  on  lap  and  start  the  pump.  If  there  is 
a  leakage  of  main-reservoir  pressure  into  the  train-line, 
which  will  be  indicated  by  the  rising  of  the  black  hand,  the 
trouble  is  either  in  the  rotary-valve  and  its  seat,  or  in  a 
defective  body  gasket.  However,  if  the  black  hand  does 
not  rise  while  handle  is  on  lap  position,  but  if  both  hands 
go  up  together  in  running  position  above  the  figure  the 
feed-valve  adjusting-spring  is  set  for,  the  trouble  is 
probably  either  in  a  faulty  supply -valve  in  the  feed- 
valve  attachment,  or  in  the  small  gasket  between  the 
feed-valve  attachment  and  the  brake-valve  body. 

Q.  36.  What  is  the  effect  of  leakage  from  the  equalizing- 
reservoir,  or  the  connections  to  the  small  chamber  above 
the  equalizing-piston  ? 

A.  When  a  service  application  is  made,  the  leakage 
from  the  equalizing-reservoir  in  the  chamber  above  the 
piston  will  cause  more  air  to  escape  than  is  desired  by 
the  engineer,  the  equalizing-piston  will  remain  raised  off 
its  seat  longer  than  intended,  and  more  pressure  will  be 
drawn  from  the  train-line  than  desired,  thus  making  a 
heavier  application  than  is  wanted.  In  other  words,  a 
continuous,  or  at  least  prolonged,  application  will  be 
made,  and  the  engineer  will  be  unable  to  reliably  regulate 
the  flow  of  pressure  from  the  train-pipe  in  service  applica- 
tion. In  release  and  in  running  positions,  this  leakage 
will  merely  mean  a  waste  of  air-pressure.  On  lap,  train- 


RXAMINA TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    407 

line  pressure  will  continue  to  escape  at  the  angle  fitting, 
either  slowly  or  rapidly,  according  to  the  size  of  the  leak. 

Q.  37.  Should  the  equalizing-piston  fail  to  seat,  how 
can  it  be  known  if  it  is  due  to  dirt  on  the  seat  of  the  valve 
or  leak  of  the  equalizing-reservoir  pressure? 

A .  This  question  was  partly  answered  in  the  preceding. 
If  there  is  dirt  between  the  valve  and  its  seat,  there  will 
be  a  constant  flow  of  train-line  pressure  through  the  angle 
fitting  at  all  times,  but  if  the  piston  fails  to  seat,  due  to 
leakage  from  the  equalizing-reservoir  in  the  chamber  above 
the  piston,  there  will  be  no  leakage  of  pressure  at  the  angle 
fitting  with  the  brake-valve  handle  in  full  release,  or 
running  position. 

GENERAL. 

Q.  38.  If  there  is  a  continuous  blow  at  the  train-pipe 
exhaust-port,  or  angle  fitting,  what  should  be  done  to 
stop  it? 

A.  If  the  blow  is  due  to  dirt  between  the  valve  and  its 
seat,  make  several  service  applications  and  releases.  If 
this  does  not  stop  the  blow,  the  valve  may  be  taken  apart 
and  cleaned,  provided  it  is.  known  that  the  trouble  is 
caused  by  dirt  between  the  valve  and  its  seat.  If  the 
piston  will  not  seat  on  account  of  leakage  from  the 
equalizing-reservoir  in  the  chamber  above  the  equalizing- 
piston,  or  the  connections,  each  connection  should  be 
gone  over  carefully  with  soap  suds  to  detect  and  locate 
the  leak,  and  it  should  then  be  taken  up.  A  torch  blaze 
is  not  sufficient.  If  it  is  impossible  to  stop  the  leaks,  on 
account  of  breakage  of  the  parts,  etc.,  a  blind  gasket  may 


40&  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

be  placed  in  the,  connection  between  the  chamber  D  and 
equalizing-reservoir,  plugging  this  opening,  and  a  plug 
should  be  placed  in  the  angle  fitting  of  the  train-pipe  dis- 
charge, and  braking  be  done  very  cautiously  and  carefully 
with  the  valve  handle  in  emergency  position.  This  latter, 
however,  is  an  expedient  that  is  very  seldom  necessary. 

Q.  39.  What  is  the  effect  of  leaving  the  handle  of  the 
brake-valve  in  full  release  position  too  long,  before  re- 
turning it  to  the  running  position,  after  releasing  brakes  ? 

A.  The  train-line  and  auxiliary  reservoirs  will  be 
charged  higher  than  the  feed-valve  is  adjusted  for,  thus 
permitting  the  equalization  of  pressures  between  the 
auxiliary  reservoirs,  train-line,  and  main  reservoir.  Should 
,  the  handle  be  then  drawn  to  running  position,  main- 
reservoir  pressure  will  be  unable  to  pass  through  the 
feed-valve  attachment  to  the  train-line  until  such  time 
as  the  latter  pressure  becomes  reduced  below  the  point  at 
which  the  feed-valve  is  adjusted.  Should  there  be  leakage 
in  the  train-line,  brakes  will  apply  and  drag  until  the 
brake-valve  is  thrown  to  full  release  position,  thus  re- 
leasing the  brakes.  The  brake-valve  handle  should  not  be 
left  in  full  release  position  after  releasing  brakes. 

Q.  40.  If,  from  any  reason,  the  brakes  should  dra£, 
how  can  they  be  released  from  the  engine  ? 

A.  If  it  is  found  that  the  train-line  is  overcharged 
before  leaving  a  terminal,  a  fairly  heavy  application  of 
the  brake  may  be  made  in  service  position,  and  the  brake- 
valve  handle  placed  in  running  position.  Several  repe- 
titions of  this  process  may  be  necessary.  However,  if  the 
overcharge  occurs  while  the  train  is  running,  and  brakes 
will  not  release  in  running  position,  the  valve-handle  may 


EX  AMI  N  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     409 

be  placed  in  full  release  position  and  left  there  until  the 
next  stop  is  made,  and  then  care  should  be  taken  to  not 
overcharge  again  in  full  release  position,  but  to  return 
to  running  position  in  due  season,  thus  preventing  this 
trouble.  Sometimes  a  series  of  light  applications  and 
releases  may  while  made  be  running  to  reduce  an  'over- 
charged train-pipe;  however,  this  is  not  practical  on  fast 
modern  trains. 

Q.  41.  If  the  brakes  apply  suddenly,  what  should  the 
engineer  do? 

A.  Place  the  brake-valve  in  lap  position  and  ascertain 
the  cause.  It  will  probably  be  due  to  a  burst  or  parted 
hose,  to  the  opening  of  a  conductor's  valve,  or  the  rear 
angle-cock.  However,  regardless  of  the  cause,  the  brake 
valve  handle  should  be  placed  on  lap,  to  save  the  main- 
reservoir  pressure  for  releasing  the  brakes  after  the  train- 
pipe  opening  has  been  closed. 

Q.  42.  If  the  pipe  connecting  the  chamber  above  the 
equalizing-piston  with  the  equalizing-reservoir  should  be 
broken  off,  what  should  be  done? 

A.  Plug  up  the  connection  to  chamber  D,  also  the 
angle  fitting  on  the  underside  of  the  brake- valve,  and 
brake  cautiously  and  carefully  in  the  emergency  applica- 
tion position. 

Q.  43.  What  should  be  done  if  the  pipe  leading  to  the 
black  hand  or  the  air-gauge  should  break?  If  the  pipe 
to  the  red  hand  should  break  ? 

A.  If  the  black-hand  pipe  should  break,  plug  the  con- 
nection at  the  brake-valve,  using  careful  judgment  in 
gauging  by  sound  the  amount  of  pressure  drawn  from  the 
equalizing-chamber  in  service  application.  If  the  red- 


410  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

hand  pipe  should  break,  plug  the  connection  at  the  brake- 
valve,  taking  care  that  the  pump  governor  is  operating 
and  observing  that  sufficient'  main-reservoir  pressure  is 
being  accumulated  with  which  to  release  brakes  after 
each  application. 

Q.  44.  How  is  the  train-pipe  pressure  regulated  to  70 
pounds,  while  the  handle  of  the  G-6  brake  is  in  running 
position  ? 

A.  By  the  adjusting-nut  and  spring  in  the  feed-valve 
attachment. 

Q.  45.  What  is  the  reason  for  having  the  equalizing- 
reservoir  on  the  brake-valve? 

A.  The  equalizing-reservoir  is  used  to  give  an  en- 
larged capacity  for  the  required  volume  of  air-pressure 
on  top  of  the  equalizing-piston,  to  permit  the  equalizing- 
piston  to  draw  pressure  gradually  from  the  train -pipe 
in  service  application.  If  this  enlarged  capacity  were 
placed  in  the  brake-valve,  the  valves  would  be  entirely 
too  large  and  bulky  for  location  in  the  cab;  however, 
this  capacity  is  obtained  by  employing  a  reservoir  of 
suitable  capacity,  and  locating  it  in  a  remote  and  con- 
venient place,  and  piping  it  to  the  brake-valve.  If  the 
reservoir  wa;,  not  used,  and  the  chamber  D  capacity 
was  restricted  to  its  present  size  alone,  it  would  be  im- 
possible to  reduce  pressure  sufficiently  slow  to  permit 
the  piston  to  rise  gradually  as  it  now  does;  but  instead 
the  pressure  would  be  exhausted  quickly,  the  piston 
would  rise  suddenly  and  make  a  heavier  application  of 
the  brake  than  was  desired. 

Q.  46.  What  effect  would  a  leak  from  the  equalizing- 
reservoir  have? 


EX AMI 'N A TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    41 1 

A.  It  would  be  troublesome  to  the  engineer,  inasmuch 
as  he  would  not  be  able  to  control  the  discharge  of  train- 
line  pressure,  as  the  leakage  of  pressure  above  the  piston 
would  cause  the  piston  to  discharge  more  train-line 
pressure  than  he  intended  and  desired ;  hence,  he  would  be 
unable  to  properly  control  brake  applications  on  his  train. 

Q.  47.  How  can  a  leak  past  the  packing-ring  in  the 
equalizing-piston  be  located? 

A.  Ascertain  that  the  rotary-valve  and  body  gasket 
are  tight,  place  the  brake-valve  handle  on  lap  position 
and  open  the  angle-cock  at  the  end  of  the  tender,  thus 
discharging  train-line  pressure  below  the  equalizing- 
piston.  If  the  black  hand  now  falls,  indicating  a  reduc- 
tion of  pressure  in  chamber  D  above  the  piston,  that 
pressure  is  evidently  passing  by  the  piston  into  the  train- 
pipe  and  out  at  the  angle-cock.  Another  way  is  to 
observe  whether  the  black  hand  rises  when  the  brake- 
valve  has  been  returned  to  lap  after  making  a  service 
application.  With  a  long  train,  a  leaky  packing-ring 
would  permit  train-line  pressure  to  leak  past  into  cham- 
ber D,  which  would  be  indicated  by  a  rise  of  the  black 
hand  on  the  gauge,  during  a  service  application. 

Q.  48.  What  danger  would  there  be  fro^i  a  leakage  of 
main-reservoir  pressure  into  the  train-pipe,  when  the 
brakes  were  set  and  brake-valve  was  on  lap  position  ? 

A.  Such  a  leakage  would  increase  the  train-line  pressure 
and  cause  the  triple  valves  to  go  to  release  position, 
thus  releasing  the  brakes. 

Q.  49.  What  danger  is  there  in  a  leak  from  the  main 
reservoir  to  the  train-pipe  when  the  brakes  are  released 
and  handle  in  running  position? 


412  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

A.  The  train  would  be  overcharged,  and  no  excess 
pressure  could  be  carried,  if  the  leakage  were  of  such 
consequence  and  there  were  a  considerable  lapse  of  time 
between  brake  applications.  This  unduly  increased 
train-line  pressure  would  have  a  tendency  to  produce 
wheel  sliding. 

Q.  50.  What  repairs  may  be  made  on  the  road  to  over- 
come such  leakage  ? 

A.  It  does  not  pay  to  make  road  repairs  generally, 
as  frequently  more  harm  is  done  thereby  than  good. 
The  four  bolts  holding  together  the  top  and  bottom 
portion  of  the  valve  may  be  carefully  tightened,  taking 
care  not  to  break  the  bolts,  and  thereby  creating  a  worse 
condition  than  existed  before.  It  would  be  better  to 
exercise  unusual  care  and  caution  in  handling  the  trouble 
while  on  the  road,  and  report  it  upon  arrival  at  the 
terminal. 

TRIPLE  VALVE. 

Q.  51.  How  many  kinds  of  triple  valves  are  there  in 
general  use? 

A.  Two,  the  plain  type  and  the  quick-action  type. 

Q.  52.  What  is  the  function  of  the  triple-valve  piston, 
the  slide-valve,  and  the  graduating-valve  ? 

A.  The  function  of  the  triple-valve  piston  is,  by 
variation  of  pressures  on  its  two  sides,  to  move  the  slide- 
valve  on  its  seat  to  the  application,  graduating,  and 
release  positions,  and  to  open  and  close  the  feed-groove 
in  the  piston  bush.  The  function  .of  the  slide-valve  is, 
by  movement  due  to  triple  valve-piston,  to  make  con- 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     413 

nection  between  the  auxiliary  reservoir  and  brake  cylin- 
der, applying  the  brake,  and  to  make  connections  bi- 
tween  the  brake-cylinder  and  the  atmosphere,  releasing 
the  brake.  The  function  of  the  graduating-valve  is, 
from  movement  given  by  the  triple  piston,  to  admit 
pressure  gradually  from  the  auxiliary  reservoir  to  the 
brake-cylinder,  in  response  to  reductions  made  in  the 
train-pipe  pressure. 

Q.  53.  Explain  how  the  quick-action  triple  operates 
when  making  an  emergency  application  of  the  brakes. 

A.  A  sudden  reduction  of  pressure  in  the  train-pipe 
will  cause  the  triple  piston  and  its  parts  to  be  moved 
to  quick  action  application  position,  which  first  throws 
into  operation  the  emergency  feature  of  the  triple,  ad- 
mitting train-line  pressure  to  the  brake-cylinder,  after 
which  auxiliary  reservoir  pressure  is  permitted  to  pass 
to  the  brake-cylinder,  where  a  higher  pressure  is  ob- 
tained than  in  a  full  service  application  of  the  brake. 

Q.  54.  Name  the  parts  of  the  quick-action  triple  valve 
that  are  not  in  the  plain  triple  valve. 

A.  The  emergency  piston,  the  rubber-seated  emer- 
gency valve,  and  the  non-return  check-valve  and  its 
spring. 

Q.  55.  Where  does  the  air  come  from  which  sets  the 
brakes  in  emergency  with  the  plain  triple  valve? 

A.  From  the  auxiliary  reservoir  only. 

Q.  56.  Where  does  the  air  come  from  which  sets  the 
brakes  when  an  emergency  application  is  made  with 
the  quick-action  triple? 

A.  The  first  portion  of  air  going  to  the  brake-cylin- 
der is  contributed  by  the  train-pipe,  after  which  the 


414  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

auxiliary  reservoir  sends  in  its  portion  of  air  to  the  brake- 
cylinder. 

Q.  57.  What  causes  a  blow  at  the  triple-valve  exhaust, 
and  how  may  it  be  located  ? 

A.  This  blow  may  be  from  three  sources,  the  train- 
pipe,  the  auxiliary  reservoir,  or  the  brake-cylinder.  If 
the  blow  is  from  train-line  pressure,  it  may  be  detected 
by  closing  the  stop-cock  in  the  cross-over  pipe,  and  the 
brake  will  promptly  apply.  If  the  blow  is  caused  by 
auxiliary  reservoir  pressure,  there  will  be  a  steady  leak 
of  pressure  at  the  exhaust-port  when  the  brake  is  released 
and  the  brake  will  not  apply  when  the  cut-out  cock 
is  closed  in  the  cross-over  pipe.  If  brake-cylinder  pres- 
sure causes  the  blow,  it  will  only  happen  when  the  brake 
is  applied  and  will  cease  when  the  brake  is  released  and 
the  brake-cylinder  empty  of  pressure. 

Q.  58.  About  how  much  time  is  required  to  charge 
the  auxiliary  reservoir  to  70  pounds  in  the  train-pipe  ? 

A.  It  should  be  no  less  than  45  seconds  and  no  more 
than  70  seconds. 

TRAIN  AIR-SIGNAL. 

Q.  59.  Explain  in  a  general  way  the  operation  of  the 
whistle  signal  reducing-valve. 

A.  The  valve  consists  of  an  adjusting  or  regulating 
spring  which  limits  the  amount  of  pressure  which  will 
pass  through  the  valve,  a  piston  and  a  supply-valve. 
If  the  spring  is  adjusted  for  40  pounds,  the  standard 
pressure,  the  piston  will  descend  and  permit  the  supply- 
valve  to  close  when  40  pounds  has-  been  reached,  thus 


EX  A  MINA  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    415 

shutting  off  further  supply  to  the  signal  line.  If  the 
signal  line  reduces  below  40  pounds,  or  what  the  valve 
is  adjusted  for,  the  adjusting  spring  and  piston  will 
permit  the  supply-valve  to  open  and  admit  main-reservoir 
pressure,  until  the  predetermined  amount  has  been  ac- 
cumulated, when  the  supply- valve  will  then  be  closed. 

Q.  60.  Explain  how  the  signals  are  transmitted  from 
the  car  to  the  engine. 

A.  On  the  engine  is  a  valve  containing  a  rubber 
diaphragm,  on  the  under  side  of  which  is  suspended 
a  stem  which,  when  raised,  will  permit  pressure  to  pass 
from  the  signal-valve  outward  through  the  air-whistle. 
When  the  pressure  on  the  top  side  of  this  diaphragm 
is  equal  or  greater  than  that  on  the  under  side,  the  stem 
will  remain  seated,  closing  the  port  to  the  whistle;  how- 
ever, if  a  reduction  be  made  in  the  chamber  above  the 
diaphragm,  or  in  the  signal-line  connected  to  this  cham- 
ber above  the  diaphragm,  the  greater  pressure  on  the 
under  side  will  cause  the  diaphragm  and  stem  to  rise, 
permitting  pressure  to  pass  to  the  whistle  producing 
the  blast. 

Q.  61.  If  the  signal- whistle  blows  when  brakes  are 
released,  where  would  you  look  for  the  trouble  ? 

A.  In  the  pressure-reducing  valve.  Dirt  or  other 
foreign  substance  has  settled  between  the  supply-valve 
and  its  seat,  thus  permitting  main-reservoir  pressure 
to  accumulate  in  the  signal-pipe.  When  brakes  are  re- 
leased, main-reservoir  pressure  falling  below  the  signal- 
line  pressure  will  permit  the  signal-line  pressure  to 
pass  backward  into  the  main  reservoir,  making  a  reduc- 
tion in  the  signal-pipe  and  on  the  top  of  the  diaphragm 


41 6  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

on  the  signal-valve,  thus  producing  the  blast  the 
same  as  if  a  reduction  were  made  at  the  car-discharge 
valve. 

Q.  62.  If  the  proper  discharge  of  air  is  made  at  the 
car-discharge  valve,  and  the  whistle  on  the  engine  only 
responds  with  a  weak  blast,  where  would  you  look  for 
the  trouble  ? 

A.  The  car-discharge  valve  may  be  partially  choked, 
or  the  diaphragm  stem  in  the  signal-valve  may  be  loose, 
responding  poorly  to  a  signal-line  reduction.  Also,  the 
adjustment  of  the  whistle  bowl  on  the  stem  should  be 
examined.  Sometimes  wind  blowing  across  the  whistle 
bowl  when  running  may  weaken  the  blast. 

HIGH-SPEED  BRAKE. 

Q.  63.  How  much  pressure  is  carried  in  the  train-pipe 
when  using  the  high-speed  brake? 

A.  One  hundred  and  ten  pounds  is  generally  adopted 
as  the  standard  train-line  pressure  in  high-speed  brake 
service. 

Q.  64.  What  changes  are  necessary  in  the  usual  quick- 
action  car  equipment  to  convert  it  into  a  "  high-speed 
brake"? 

A.  An  additional  attachment  to  the  brake-cylinder 
by  pipe  connections  of  the  high-speed  automatic  reducing- 
valve. 

•  Q.  65.  What  parts  are  necessary  to  change  the  engine 
and  tender  equipment  to  the  "  high-speed  brake"? 

A.  A  high-speed  automatic-reducing  valve  for  the 
tender  brake-cylinder,  another  for  the  driver-brake,  and 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    417 

truck-brake  cylinders,  one  reversing-cock,  and  the  go- 
pound  and  no-pound  feed-valve  attachments,  a  Siamese 
fitting  and  second  pump  governor  top. 

Q.  66.  At  what  pressure  will  the  auxiliary  reservoir 
and  brake-cylinders  equalize  with  an  emergency  appli- 
cation using  the  high-speed  brake? 

A.  With  a  7 -inch  piston  travel  the  equalized  pressures 
will  be  about  86  pounds. 

Q.  67.  Explain  in  a  general  way  the  operation  of  the 
high-speed  reducing-valve. 

A.  The  valve  consists  of  a  piston  and  stern  whose 
downward  movement  is  regulated  by  the  adjusting  spring. 
A  small  slide-valve  with  a  triangular  escape  port  is  attached 
to  the  upper  side  of  the  piston.  If  the  adjusting  spring 
is  set  at  60  pounds,  and  an  emergency  application  of 
the  brake  be  made,  the  piston  will  descend  when  60  pounds 
has  been  accumulated  in  the  brake-cylinder,  and  the 
apex  or  smallest  part  of  the  triangular  port  will  permit 
brake-cylinder  pressure  to  pass  through  it  and  escape 
to  the  atmosphere;  as  the  brake-cylinder  pressure  re- 
duces, the  piston  will  gradually  move  up  a  larger  part 
of  the  triangular  port,  thus  increasing  the  opening  for 
the  escape  of  brake-cylinder  pressure  to  the  atmosphere. 
When  the  brake-cylinder  pressure  has  blown  down  to 
60  pounds,  the  port  will  be  closed,  shutting  off  further 
escape  of  brake-cylinder  pressure  to  the  atmosphere. 
In  service  application,  the  larger  portion  of  the  triangular 
port  will  permit  brake-cylinder  pressure  to  escape  to  the 
atmosphere  when  60  pounds  has  been  accumulated  in 
the  brake-cylinder,  thus  blowing  down  the  pressure 
quickly  and  preventing  more  than  60  pounds  being 


4i8  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

accumulated  in  the  brake-cylinder  in  service  applica- 
tion. 

Q.  68.  If  a  train  with  a  high-speed  brake  should  pick 
up  a  car  not  equipped  for  high-speed  brake  service, 
what  should  the  engine-man  do? 

A.  Usually  a  small  safety-valve  is  supplied  by  yard 
inspectors  for  cars  not  equipped  with  the  high-speed 
reducing-valve.  Sometimes,  however,  the  car  in  unusual 
cases  is  permitted  to  go  without  either  a  reducing-valve 
and  without  a  safety-valve,  care  being  taken  by  the 
engineer  in  service  applications  of  the  brake  not  to  slide 
the  wheels. 

Q.  69.  When  a  car  that  is  equipped  with  an  ordinary 
brake  is  coupled  to  a  train  using  the  high-speed  pres- 
sure, what  must  be  done  with  this  car  to  run  it  with  the 
high  pressure  ? 

A.  This  is  answered  in  the  preceding  question. 

Q.  70.  How  does  the  pressure  developed  in  the  brake- 
cylinder,  with  the  high-speed  brake,  with  a  given  re- 
duction, compare  with  pressure  developed  with  the 
same  reduction  made  with  the  ordinary  quick-action 
brake? 

A.  If  reductions  less  than  that  which  will  cause  a 
full  application  of  the  low-pressure  brake  is  made,  the 
resultant  brake-cylinder  pressures  will  be  the  same  with 
the  low-pressure  brake  as  with  the  high-pressure  brake; 
however,  if  the  reduction  made  should  do  more  than 
produce  an  equalization  of  the  low-pressure  brake,  the 
cylinder  of  the  high-pressure  brake  would  have  the  high- 
est pressure,  and  would  give  a  greater  breaking  force". 

Q.  71.  How  many  full  applications  with  the  high-speed 


EXAMINATION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    419 

brake  can  be  made  before  recharging  is  necessary,  and 
have  left  as  much  pressure  as  is  used  with  the  ordinary 
quick-action  brake? 

A.  The  high-speed  brake  will  usually,  with  proper 
piston  travel,  permit  of  two  full  service  applications  and 
releases  and  still  have  sufficient  pressure  reserved  to 
make  an  emergency  application  as  great  as  the  7o-pound 
brake  would  give  when  fully  charged. 

Q.  72.  How  should  the  engine- truck  or  driver-brake 
be  cut  out  ? 

A.  A  suitable  arrangement  o  f cut-out  cocks  should 
be  supplied  which  will  permit  of  the  auxiliary  reservoir 
being  cut  out  when  the  brake-cylinder  is  cut  out,  thus 
preventing  the  brake  left  cut  in  having  too  large  an 
auxiliary  reservoir-capacity,  which  would  tend  to  slide 
the  wheels  when  brakes  were  applied. 

Q.  73.  How  should  both  the  driver-  and  engine- truck 
brakes  be  cut  out  ? 

A.  By  the  stop-cocks  arranged  for  that  purpose. 

STRAIGHT  AIR-BRAKE. 

Q.  74.  On  what  is  the  straight  air-brake  designed  to 
operate,  and  what  extra  parts  are  required  on  engine 
and  tender? 

A.  The  straight  air-brake  is  designed  to  operate  on 
the  engine  and  tender  alone,  and  not  on  the  cars  of  the 
train.  To  operate  the  combined  automatic  and  straight 
air-brake,  extra  parts  as  follows  should  be  supplied: 
Reducing-valve  for  the  straight  air  system,  set  at  45 
pounds',  an  engineer's  straight  air-brake  valve;  a  double- 


420  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

seated  check-valve  for  the  driver-brake  cylinders;  a 
double-seated  check-valve  for  the  tender  brake-cylinder; 
a  safety-valve,  set  at  53  pounds,  one  for  the  driver-brake 
cylinders  and  one  for  the  tender  brake-cylinder;  and  a 
straight  air-brake  hose  connection  between  the  engine 
and  tender. 

Q.  75.  What  should  be  done  to  release  the  brakes  when 
they  do  not  release  with  the  handle  of  the  straight  air- 
brake valve  in  release  position? 

A .  The  automatic  brake-valve  handle  should  be  placed 
in  full  release  position,  then  returned  to  running  position. 

Q.  76.  What  pressure  should  be  developed  in  the  brake- 
cylinder  by  this  brake? 

A.  About  45  pounds,  as  indicated  by  the  adjustment 
of  the  reducing- valve  in  the  pipe  between  the  main 
reservoir  and  straight  air-brake  valve. 

Q.  77.  Where  are  leaks  in  the  train-pipe  most  likely  to 
occur  ? 

A.  First,  at  the  hose  couplings;  second,  at  the  unions 
in  the  train-pipe;  third,  through  porous  hose;  and 
fourth,  at  the  exhaust-port  of  the  triple  valve. 

Q.  78.  What  is  the  leakage  groove  of  the  brake-cylin- 
der for  ? 

A.  To  permit  pressure  going  to  the  brake-cylinder  at 
the  improper  time  to  escape  to  the  atmosphere,  past  the 
brake-cylinder  piston,  instead  of  accumulating  there  and 
pushing  out  the  brake  system  and  applying  the  brake. 

Q.  79.  As  a  rule,  how  great  a  reduction  of  train-pipe 
pressure  is  necessary  to  insure  the  brake-piston  moving 
out  beyond  the  leakage  groove? 

A.    On  a  train  of  a  few  cars,  about  5  to  7  pounds  is 


EX  A  MINA  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMO  TION.     42 1 

sufficient;  but  on  a  long  train  10  or  12  pounds  will  be 
required.  This  depends  also  upon  the  condition  of  the 
triple  valves  and  the  condition  of  the  equalizing-piston 
in  the  brake-valve. 

Q.  80.  Should  the  brakes  be  tested  before  leaving  the 
terminal  ? 

A.  Yes;  first  by  the  yard-testing  plan  to  determine 
the  proper  piston  travel  and  condition  of  the  brakes, 
and  second,  by  the  engineer  after  coupling  up  to  be  sure 
that  all  angle-cocks  are  open  and  that  the  brakes  are 
operative. 

Q.  81.  What  is  the  proper  brake-cylinder  piston  travel 
on  freight-cars? 

A.  From  5  to  7  inches  is  the  accepted  standard  travel. 

Q.  82.  How  is  the  slack  taken  up  on  a  tender? 

A.  With  a  brake  of  the  equalized  type  a  dead  lever 
is  supplied  for  taking  up  the  slack.  On  other  types, 
the  slack  may  be  taken  up  at  points  where  holes  are 
provided  for  connecting-rods  in  the  brake  rigging.  Some 
riggings  are  supplied  with  turn-buckles  for  this  purpose, 
but  the  practice  is  not  considered  the  best  for  tenders. 

Q.  83.  If  a  brake  is  stuck  and  cannot  be  released  from 
the  engine,  how  would  you  proceed  to  release  it? 

A.  Open  the  "  bleeder"  cock  quickly  and  close  it 
quickly,  thus  making  a  sudden  reduction  in  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  pressure,  which  will  allow  the  greater  train- 
pipe  pressure  to  shift  the  triple  from  application  position 
to  release  position. 

Q.  84.  What  is  the  proper  piston  travel  for  passenger- 
cars? 

A.  About  6  inches  standing  travel. 


422  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

Q.  85.  If,  when  testing  brakes,  it  is  found  that  one 
will  not  apply,  what  might  be  the  cause  ? 

A.  The  brake  might  be  cut  out  by  the  cock  in  the 
cross-over  pipe,  the  auxiliary  reservoir  might  not  be 
charged,  or  the  triple-valve  piston  and  slide-valve  might 
be  so  corroded  that  they  will  not  move  in  response  to 
an  ordinary  train-pipe  reduction. 

Q.  86.  Can  a  brake  be  operated  if  the  retaining-valve 
is  broken  off? 

A.  Yes;  the  retaining-valve  is  operated  only  to  hold 
pressure  in  the  brake-cylinder  to  prevent  a  full  release 
of  the  brake,  and  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  application 
of  the  brake. 

Q.  87.  With  a  yo-pounds  train-pipe  and  auxiliary- 
reservoir  pressure,  how  much  of  a  reduction  will  be  re- 
quired to  apply  the  brakes  fully? 

A.  About  20  pounds,  providing  the  adjustment  of 
piston  travel  is  as  it  should  be. 

Q.  88.  Has  the  piston  travel  anything  to  do  with  the 
pressure  obtained  in  the  brake  cylinder? 

A.  Yes;  the  longer  the  piston  travel  the  greater  will 
be  the  capacity  of  the  cylinder  for  consuming  the  aux- 
iliary-reservoir pressure  sent  to  the  cylinder,  and  conse- 
quently the  lower  will  be  the  brake-cylinder  pressure. 
The  shorter  the  piston  travel,  the  less  will  be  the  volume 
in  the  cylinder  into  which  the  auxiliary-reservoir  pressure 
must  go,  and  the  higher  will  be  the  brake-cylinder  pres- 
sure. 

Q.  89.  With  all  things  uniform,  what  is  the  highest 
pressure  that  can  be  obtained  in  full  service  applica- 
tion? 


EX  AMI  N  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    423 

A.  About  50  pounds,  with  the  piston  travel  adjusted 
at  about  7  inches  travel.  Emergency  application?  A. 
About  60  pounds  with  a  7-inch  piston  travel. 

Q.  90.  Is  a  greater  initial  reduction  required  with  a 
5o-car  train  than  with  a  lo-car  train? 

A.  Yes;  if  a  service  application  be  made,  for  the 
train-line  pressure  may  leak  past  a  poor  fitting  ring  in 
the  equalizing-piston  of  the  brake-valve  and  on  to  the 
top  side,  thus  causing  the  piston  to  descend  and  close 
off  the  escape  of  train-line  pressure  before  the  full  re- 
duction has  been  made.  If  the  train  be  short,  the  leakage 
upward  past  the  piston  ring  into  chamber  D  will  be 
less  than  it  will  be  with  a  longer  pipe,  which  has  a  greater 
volume  and  a  better  chance  for  leakage. 

MISCELLANEOUS  (AIR-BRAKE). 

Q.  91.  Explain  how  a  terminal  test  of  the  brakes  should 
be  made. 

A.  All  train-pipe  couplings  should  be  made  and  angle- 
cocks  opened  except  the  one  on  the  rear  of  the  train, 
which  should  be  closed.  All  hand-brakes  should  be 
off.  The  first  test  made  should  be  for  leaks  at  the  hose 
couplings  and  other  points  in  the  train-line  and  aux- 
iliary-reservoir connections.  A  service  application  of 
about  10  pounds  should  be  made,  and  examination  be 
made  to  learn  whether  all  brakes  have  applied.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  all  brakes  are  cut  in.  The  piston 
travel  should  be  adjusted  on  all  cars  to  about  6  or  7 
inches.  When  brakes  are  released,  care  should  be  taken 
to  know  if  all  brakes  are  off  and  that  the  brake-rigging 


424  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

does  not  foul  at  any  point  on  the  truck  or  car  framings. 
The  retaining-valves  should  be  known  to  be  in  operative 
condition  and  all  handles  turned  down  when  not  in 
operation. 

Q.  92.  What  is  meant  by  a  running  test,  and  how  is 
this  test  made  ? 

A.  A  running  test  consists  of  a  light  application  of 
the  brakes  by  the  engineer  when  the  train  is  pulling  out, 
and  before  it  has  gotten  up  to  speed,  to  be  sure  that  all 
angle-cocks  are  open  and  that  the  brakes  are  operative. 

Q.  93.  At  what  points  on  the  road  should  the  running 
test  be  made  ? 

A*  At  terminals  and  at  all  points  where  the  angle- 
cocks  have  been  manipulated  to  take  in  or  set  out  cars, 
etc.  It  is  also  the  rule  on  some  roads  to  make  a  running 
*  test  at  points  where  it  shall  be  absolutely  necessary  (or 
the  brakes  to  perform  their  functions,  such  as  on  draw- 
bridges, etc. 

Q.  94.  When  should  the  brakes  be  released  when 
making  a  stop  with  a  passenger  train  of  less  than  ten 
cars? 

A.  Shortly  before  coming  to  a  dead  standstill,  to  allow 
the  brakes  to  right  themselves,  and  thus  preventing  12 
shock  to  the  passengers,  b.  Of  ten  or  more  cars?  A. 
Brakes  should  be  held  on  until  the  train  comes  to  a 
standstill,  as  releasing  to-  avoid  a  shock  with  a  long  train 
will  frequently  break  it  in  two.  A  two-application  stop 
should  be  made,  and  the  brakes  be  held  on  with  a  light 
second  application  until  the  train  comes  to  a  standstill. 

Q.  95.  When  should  the  brakes  be  released  in  making 
a  stop  with  a  freight-train  ? 


EX  AMI  N  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     425 

A.  The  brakes  should  be  held  on  until  the  train  comes 
to  a  stop,  as  with  a  long  passenger  train  of  ten  or  more 
cars. 

Q.  96.  Why  is  it  dangerous  to  repeatedly  apply  and 
release  the  brakes  on  a  long  train  without  giving  the 
auxiliary  reservoirs  time  to  recharge? 

A.  The  auxiliary  reservoir  pressure  will  become  de- 
pleted by  repeated  applications,  and  the  holding  power 
of  the  brakes  be  thereby  reduced  and  be  insufficient  to 
control  the  train. 

Q.  97.  When  two  engines  are  coupled  together  in  double 
heading,  which  engine  should  have  full  control  of  the 
brakes,  and  what  should  the  other  engine  do? 

A.  The  first  engine  should  do  the  braking,  and  the 
second  engineer  should  close  the  stop-cock  under  his 
brake-valve,  and  place  the  brake-valve  on  lap,  thus  throw- 
ing out  of  service  all  his  air-brake  equipment  except  the 
foundation  brakes  on  his  engine,  which  are  operated  by 
the  leading  engine. 

Q.  98.  In  case  a  hose  should  burst  while  on  the  road, 
what  should  the  enginemen  do  to  assist  the  trainmen  in 
locating  it? 

A.  Place  the  brake-valve  handle  in  full  release  posi- 
tion, thus  causing  the  escape  of  air  at  the  bursted  hose 
to  manifest  itself  to  the  brakemen  as  quickly  as  possible, 
easing  the  steam-throttle  off  to  reduce  speed  of  the  air- 
pump. 

Q.  99.  How  would  you  apply  and  release  the  brakes  on 
a  freight  train,  when  only  a  part  of  the  train  is  equipped 
with  air-brakes? 

A.    A  reasonable  reduction  in  the  train-pipe  pressure 


426  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

should  be  made  to  apply  the  brakes  on  the  air-cars,  and 
when  the  slack  of  the  train  has  been  bunched,  which  is 
indicated  by  the  pushing  forward  sensation  when  the 
slack  is  taken  up,  then  the  brakes  may  be  applied  with 
greater  force  if  desired.  In  releasing,  the  straight  air- 
brake on  the  engine  and  tender  should  be  held  on  while 
the  train-brakes  are  being  released  and  the  slack  allowed 
to  run  out.  This  will  prevent  the  slack  running  out  in  a 
manner  which  will  snap  the  train  in  two. 

Q.  ico.  What  precaution  should  be  taken  in  starting  a 
long  freight  train  with  all  cars  equipped  with  air-brakes, 
and  in  operation? 

A.  The  slack  should  be  taken  easily  until  the  entire 
train  is  stretched,  thus  preventing  a  break-in-two,  which 
might  occur  if  the  slack  were  taken  suddenly. 

Q.  101.  In  releasing  brakes  on  a  long  freight  train, 
what  should  the  enginemen  do  to  be  sure  that  the  brakes 
have  released  ? 

A .  Leave  the  brake-valve  handle  in  full  release  position 
about  as  many  seconds  as  there  are  cars  in  the  train, 
before  bringing  the  brake-valve  handle  to  release  posi- 
tion. 

Q.  1 02.  How  is  the  slack  taken  up  on  the  American 
outside-equalized  driver-brake  ? 

A.  By  a  slack  adjuster  feature  on  the  connecting-rod 
to  the  bell-crank  lever. 

Q.  103.  Are  the  train-pipe  and  auxiliary-reservoir  pres- 
sures equal  at  all  times? 

A.  No.  b.  What  time  are  they  equal?  A.  Before 
the  brake  is  applied,  when  the  triple  valve  has  lapped 
itself  during  the  application  of  the  brake,  and  after  a 


EX  AM  IN  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.    427 

release  of  brakes  when  the  auxiliary  reservoir  has  become 
fully  recharged. 

Q.  104.  How  many  applications  of  the  brake  are  neces- 
sary to  make  a  stop  with  a  passenger  train,  and  why? 

A.  The  two-application  stop  is  considered  the  best  in 
modern  passenger-train  service.  The  first  application 
should  be  heavy  and  sufficient  to  slow  down  the  train  to 
about  eight  or  ten  miles  an  hour,  when  the  brakes  should 
be  released  before  reaching  the  point  at  which  the  stop  is 
desired,  and  a  second  and  lighter  application  should  be 
made  to  finish  up  the  stop,  and  should  be  held  on  until 
the  train  is  brought  to  a  standstill.  If  brakes  are  released 
on  a  long  passenger  train  before  coming  to  a  full  stop,  the 
slack  of  the  train  will  run  out,  and  the  train  be  snapped 
in  two. 

Q.  105.  How  would  you  make  a  stop  on  a  grade  with 
a  passenger  train  ? 

A.  By  the  two-application  method,  holding  on  the 
brake  for  a  second  application. 

Q.  106.  Explain  the  operation  of  the  pressure-retaining 
valve. 

A.  When  the  handle  of  the  retaining-valve  is  turned 
down  it  is  inoperative.  When  the  handle  is  turned  up  in 
a  horizontal  position,  the  free  exit  for  air  from  the  brake 
cylinder  to  the  atmosphere  is  cut  off  and  the  pressure 
must  pass  upward  against  the  weighted  valve,  which  has 
a  resistance  of  20  pounds.  All  over  this  amount  will 
raise  the  valve  and  blow  off,  but  all  below  that  amount 
will  be  held  in  the  brake-cylinder. 

Q.  107.  What  benefits  are  derived  from  the  use  of  the 
retaining-valve  ? 


428  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

A.  On  mountain  grades  the  pressure  retained  in  the 
brake-cylinder,  by  turning  up  the  handle  of  the  valve,  will 
hold  the  train  in  check  while  the  auxiliary  reservoirs  are 
being  recharged  for  subsequent  application  of  the  brake. 

Q.  1 08.  Name  the  defects  which  cause  the  retaining- 
valve  to  be  inoperative. 

A.  First,  defective  packing  leather  in  the  brake- 
cylinder.  Second,  defective  union  in  the  retaining- valve 
pipe.  Third,  retaining-valve  or  pipe  broken  off. 

Q.  109.  Explain  how  a  stop  at  a  water-tank  or  coal- 
chute  should  be  made  With  a  long  freight  train. 

A.  The  engine  should  be  equipped  with  a  straight  air- 
brake for  this  purpose.  The  train-brakes  should  be  used 
.until  the  speed  of  the  train  has  been  brought  down  to 
three  or  four  miles  an  hour,  then  released  and  the  straight 
air-brake  applied  to  cover  the  last  few  feet  of  the  dis- 
tance to  the  desired  stop.  If  the  engine  is  not  equipped 
with  the  straight  air-brake  it  would  be  better,  with  a  long 
train  of  all  air-braked  cars,  to  stop,  holding  on  the  brakes, 
and  to  cut  off  the  engine  while  taking  coal  and  water, 
as  considerable  time  and  damage  will  be  saved  by  this 
method. 

Q.  1 10.  Do  you  think  it  poor  policy  to  reverse  the 
engine  while  the  driver-brakes  are  applied? 

A.  Yes;  tests  have  proven  this. 

Q.  in.  Should  the  train-pipe  be  blown  out  before 
leaving  the  engine-house? 

A.  Yes;  as  cinders  or  sparks  are  likely  to  be  gathered 
in  the  coupling  head  or  hose. 

Q.  112.  Are  the  brakes  any  more  liable  to  stick  after 
an  emergency  application  than  after  a  service? 


EX  AM  IN  A  TION  OF  ENGINEERS  FOR  PROMOTION.     429 

A.  Yes;  as  dirt  in  the  train  line  might  work  between 
the  emergency-valve  and  its  seat,  permitting  train-pipe 
pressure  to -pass  to  the  brake-cylinder. 

Q.  113.  If,  in  making  a  service  application,  you  notice 
some  wheels  slide,  do  you  think  it  good  policy  to  drop 
sand  to  start  them  turning  again? 

A.  No;  a  wheel  once  stopped  cannot  be  started  to 
turning  again  by  sand  dropped  on  the  rail,  and  that 
process  will  only  cut  the  wheel  worse  and  make  the  flat 
spot  longer.  .  . 

Q.  114.  Explain  the  principle  of  the  duplex  governor 
applied  to  freight  trains. 

A.  The  high-pressure  head  of  the  duplex  governor  is 
connected  direct  to  the  main-reservoir  pressure  and  is 
usually  set  for  no  pounds.  The  low-pressure  head  is 
connected  to  port  /  in  the  brake-valve,  and  is  set  at  90 
pounds.  When  the  brake-valve  handle  is  in  full  release 
position  or  running  position,  the  low-pressure  head  is 
operative,  but  when  placed  on  lap,  there  being  no  main 
reservoir  in  port  /,  the  high-pressure  head  must  govern, 
thus  permitting  the  pump  to  compress  air  during  the  time 
the  brake-valve  handle  is  on  lap  while  making  a  brake 
application. 

Q.  115.  Are  the  results  from  shocks  on  passenger  trains 
likely  to  be  expensive  and  give  the  road  a  bad  reputation  ? 

A.  Yes. 

Q.  116.  Do  you  understand  the  importance  of  watching 
the  air-gauge  closely? 

A.  Yes. 

Q.  117.  When  descending  a  grade,  now  much  should  the 
speed  be  reduced  before  releasing  the  brake  to  recharge  ? 


436  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  RUNNING. 

A.  The  speed  of  the  train  should  be  brought  down  to 
about  10  or  12  miles  per  hour  before  recharging.  Fre- 
quent recharge  is  preferable  to  long  runs  between  periods 
of  recharging. 

Q.  1 1 8.  What  is  meant  by  application  of  the  brakes? 

A.  The  operation  by  which  train-line  pressure  is  re- 
duced to  permit  of  triple-valve  movement,  which  will 
send  pressure  to  the  brake-cylinder. 

Q.  119.  Do  you  understand  that  the  braking  power  is 
considerably  more  on  passenger  than  on  freight  cars,  and 
on  this  account  greater  care  must  be  exercised  in  hand- 
ling them  ? 

A.  Yes. 


INDEX. 


Accidents:  PAGE 

Broken  crank-pin 148 

Broken  driving-axle,  frame  or  tires 164 

Broken  rocker  or  rocker-shaft 142 

Broken  wheels 164 

Cylinder-head  broken 148 

Driving-springs  broken 161 

Side-rods 149 

Throttle i52 

To  cylinder  connections 146 

To  running-gear 156 

To  valve-motion 1 25,  142 

To  various  parts 368 

Trucks 163 

Adhesion: 

Locomotive 262 

Air: 

Composition  of 335 

Effect  on  fire  of  too  much 69 

Required  for  combustion 335,  290-2 

Air-brake: 

First-year's  questions  and  answers  on 344 

Second-year's  examination  on 359 

Third-year's  examination  on 395 

Anthracite: 

Burning 297 

Axles: 

Driving,  broken 164 


43 2  INDEX. 

Ash-pan:  PAGE 

Purpose  of 349 

Bell-ringer: 

Description  of  . . ; 375 

Blows: 

Through  valves  and  pistons 384 

Blower: 

Description  and  use  of 336 

Boiler: 

Description  of  locomotive 347 

Designing 303 

Explosions — 119 

Feeding  the 64,  87 

Inspection  of 30 

Shortness  of  water  in 93 

Boilers: 

Anthracite  burning 117 

Blowing-off 121 

Care  of 115 

Causes  of  injury  to 1 20 

Dangers  of  mud  and  scale  in 121 

Different  forms  of  locomotive 117 

Factor  of  safety  of 1 16 

Foaming  and  priming  of 365 

Mother  Hubbard 1 18 

Over-pressure  on 122 

Precautions  against  scorching 34 

Preservation  of 119 

Ross  Winans 117 

Wootten 117 

Zerah  Colburn 117 

Books: 

Value  of  studying  engineering 9 

Brakes  (See  EXAMINATIONS): 

Chatellier 216 

Carbon: 

Purposes  of 335 

Clearance: 

Too  much  piston 88,  170 


INDEX.  433 

Coal:  PAGE 

Bituminous 299 

Burning  anthracite 297 

Combustion  of 334 

Ingredients  of 68,  334 

Saving  and  waste  of 284 

Collisions: 

Of  trains 157 

Combustion: 

And  firing 334 

Chapter  on 284-304 

Gases  of 335 

Principles  of 285,  290 

To  effect  perfect 68 

Compound  locomotives: 

Characteristics  of 3J7& 

Power  of 267 

Connecting-rods : 

Angularity  of 207 

Care  of 167 

Functions  of 168 

Crank: 

Attempts  to  abolish 204 

Crank-pin: 

Broken 148 

Cross-heads: 

Securing 140 

Cut-off: 

Adjustment  of 245 

Advantage  of  short 46 

Finding  point  of 244 

Cylinder-head: 

Breakage  of 146 

Cylinders: 

Accidents  to 146 

Back  pressure  in 198 

Compression  in 200 

Operation  of  steam  in 198 

Pistons  and  packing  of 372 


434  INDEX. 

Dampers:  PAGE 

Loss  of  heat  from  bad 70 

Operating 68,  336 

Detroit: 

Sight-feed  lubricator 326-7 

Diaphragm-plate : 

Purpose  of 282 

Draft: 

Creating '. 273,  276 

Obstructions  to 83 

Draft  appliances: 

Chapter  on 273-283 

Driving-boxes: 

Pounding  off 1 76 

Dry-pipe: 

Bursted 151 

Eccentric: 

Angular  advance  of 206 

Definition  of 202 

Position  of 134,  203 

Setting 135 

Eccentric-rods: 

Breakage  of 138 

Slipped 137 

Eccentric-straps : 

Breakage  of 138 

Engine: 

Abuse  of 393 

How  to  start  with  train 44 

Reversed  (action  of) 212 

Rough  riding 183 

Engineer: 

Attributes  that  make  good i 

Examination  for  promotion 331-430 

First  duties  of 37,  362 

Learning  duties  of 18 

Must  be  intelligent 3 

Engines: 

Causes  of  hard  steaming 80 

Hard  steaming 79 


INDEX.  435 

Engines:  PAGE 

Power  of  steam 261 

Running  worn-out 125 

Slippery 63 

Equalizer: 

Broken 162 

Exhaust: 

Detecting  cause  of  lame 137 

Warning  of 1 29 

Watching 1 26 

Examinations: 

Chapter  on 33i~43° 

First-year's  general 332 

First-year's,  on  air-brake 344 

For  promotion 21,  331-430 

Second-year's  general 346 

Second-year's,  on  air-brake 359 

Third-year's  general 362 

Third-year's,  on  air-brake 395 

Fire: 

Management  of 49 

Temperature  of 52,  295 

Fire-boxes: 

Different  forms  of T 115,  117,  118,  347 

Questions  about .  . 394 

Firemen: 

Bad 56 

First  duty  of 35,  332 

Highest  type  of 51 

Learning  duties  of .17 

Medium 56 

Men  who  make  good 14 

Methods  of  good 55 

Methods  of  promotion 21 

Misconception  of  duty  of 16 

Firing: 

Conditions  that  demand  good 51 

Losses  from  bad 301 

Systems  of 55,  286,  334,  352 


436  INDEX. 

Flues:  PAGE 

Burst 123,  377 

Leaky 86,  377 

Fuel: 

Combining  elements  of 288 

Gases  from  burning 335 

>  Waste  of 284 

Gases: 

Heat  value  of  fuel 300 

Velocity  of  fire 293 

Gauges: 

Steam 93 

Watching  the  water 335 

Grates: 

Advantage  of  large 343 

Burning  of 36 

Defects  of 85 

Methods  of  shaking ^ 53 

Heat: 

Converting,  into  work 305 

Used  in  evaporating  water 306 

Igniting-temperature : 

Of  fire 52,  295 

Indicator: 

Steam-engine T 309-318 

Injector: 

Care  of 104 

Elementary  form  of 102 

Invention  of 98 

Principle  of  action  .  . 99,  103,  391 

Injectors: 

Care  of 106,  107 

Efficiency  of 98 

Failures  of 354 

Giffard 108 

Little  Giant 112 

Metropolitan 113 

Most  common  arrangement  of 105 

Nathan , in 

Operation  of 353 


INDEX.  437 

Injectors:  PAGE 

Sellers 108 

Inspection: 

Importance  of 24,  32,  126 

Link: 

Hooking  up 44,  60 

Radius  of 232 

Slip  of 230 

Link-motion: 

Adjustment  of . 229 

Chapter  on 218 

Invention  of 219 

Weak  points  of 225 

Locomotives: 

Causes  of  hard  steaming 80 

Essentials  of  free  steaming 79 

Hard  steaming 79 

Horse-power  of 261,  265 

How  to  start 44 

Inspection  of 24,  32 

Learning  to  keep,  in  order 19 

Power  of  compound 267 

Running  worn-out 125 

Slippery 63 

Tractive  power  of  . , 261-4 

Locomotive  engineer: 

Duties  of  \ i 

How  made 12 

Increasing  duties  of 4 

Learning  duties  of 18 

Public  interest  in 3 

Lubrication: 

Friction  and 373 

Lubricators: 

Detroit 326-7 

Michigan  . 330 

Nathan's 323 

Sight-feed 319 

Triple-feed 322 


438  INDEX. 

Measurements:  PAQB 

Scientific 289 

Michigan: 

Bull's-eye  lubricator < 330 

Nathan: 

Sight-feed  lubricator 323 

Nozzles: 

Action  of 276,  283 

Defect  of 277 

Effect  of  small 302 

Size  of  exhaust .• ^ oo 

Oxygen: 

Province  of,  in  combustion 334 

Packing: 

Piston  and  cylinder 372 

Petticoat-pipe: 

Adjustment  of 82 

Shape  and  size  of 280 

Pipe: 

Exhaust  . 278 

Leaky  steam 85 

Pistons: 

Clearance  of 170 

Effect  of  too  much  clearance 88 

How  to  detect  leakage  of 1 28 

Striking  point  of 1 70 

Piston-stroke: 

Events  of 211 

Power: 

Horse * 261 

Tractive 261 

Pounding: 

Of  driving-boxes  and  wedges 1 76 

Of  working  parts 1 53,  390 

Resistance: 

Train 261,  270 

Rods: 

Adjusting  brasses  of 366-7 

Running-gear: 

Accident  to 382 


INDEX.  439 

Running-gear:  PAGE 

Importance  of  understanding 160 

Safety-valve: 

Purpose  of 339 

Side-rods: 

Adjustment  of w . .   1 73 

Broken 149 

Care  of 167 

Keying  of 175 

Purpose  of 172 

Slide-valve: 

Allen 192 

Influence  on,  of  eccentric  throw 227 

Inside  clearance  of 195 

Invention  of 185 

Lap  of 188 

Lead 196 

Movement  of 205 

Primitive 185 

Smoke: 

Cause  and  prevention  of 337,  351 

Smoke-box: 

Extended 84,  282 

Length  of 350 

Smoke-stacks: 

Badly  proportioned 89 

Different  kinds  of 83 

Proper  dimensions  of 281 

Speed: 

Judging 13 

Stations: 

Duties  of  enginemen  at 72 

Precautions  approaching 73 

Stay-bolts: 

Purposes  of 347 

Stresses  on 119 

Steam: 

Advantage  of  high-pressure 47 

And  motive  power 305 

Compression  of 200 


44°  INDEX. 

Steam:  PAGE 

Conditions  of 308-9 

Curve  of  expanding 314 

For  converting  heat  into  work 305 

Heat  of 332 

Journey  of,  from  boiler  to  cylinders 363 

Meaning  of,  used  expansively 364 

Raising 33 

Velocity  of 102 

Working  expansively 45 

Steam-gauge: 

Principle  of 333 

Steam-pipe: 

Burst 144 

Sweating: 

Cause  of  tank 373 

Temperature: 

Advantage  of  high  furnace  .  .  . . 52 

Igniting 52,  295 

Of  fire-box 338 

Of  injected  water 101 

Throttle: 

Accidents  to 152 

Disconnected 149 

Time-table: 

Familiarity  with 76 

Tractive  power: 

"Of  locomotives 261-4 

Train: 

Pulling  a  passenger 78 

Resistance , 261,  270 

Rights  of 72 

Running  a  fast  freight 42 

Signalling 285 

Speed 13 

Tubes  (See  FLUES). 

Valve: 

Throttle  disconnected 378 

Valve-gear  (See  VALVE-MOTION). 


INDEX.  44 1 

Valve-motion:  PAGE 

Accidents  to  .  . 125,  142,  379 

Adjusting  Walschaert 258 

Aids  in  studying 10.  209 

Chapter  on 185 

Direct  and  indirect 370 

Hawthorne's  radial 248 

Interest  in 132 

Inventing  radial 247 

Inventor  of  Walschaert 249 

Locating  defects  of 134 

Mason's  Walschaert 250 

Mellen,  C.  J.,  on  Walschaert 251 

Melling's  radial 247 

Modern  Walschaert 251 

Noting  defects  of 1 26 

Of  fast  passenger  locomotive 224 

Setting  Walschaert 260 

Trouble  with 132 

Walschaert,  chapter  on 247 

Valves: 

Balanced  slide 369 

How  to  detect  leakage  of 1 28 

Lap  of  slide 188,  370 

Lead  of  slide 196,  370 

Safety 339 

Setting 236 

Testing  the 145 

Valves  and  pistons: 

Description  of 368 

Vanclain,  S.M.: 

On  train  resistance 271 

Velocity: 

Of  fire  gases 293 

Walschaert  valve-gear 247 

Water: 

Shortness  of 93 

Temperature  of  injecting .   101 

Velocity  of  flow  of 101 


442  INDEX. 

Wedges:  PAQE 

Care  of 167 

Pounding  of. 176 

Setting  up 180,  366 

Wellington,  A.  M.: 

On  train  resistance 271 

Wheel-slipping: 

Causes  of 61 

Work: 

Reporting 389 


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bolic Functions,  by  James  McMahon.  No.  5.  Harmonic  Func- 
tions, by  William  E.  Byerly.  No.  6.  Grassmann's  Space  Analysis, 
by  Edward  W.  Hyde.  No.  7.  Probability  and  Theory  of  Errors, 
by  Robert  S.  Woodward.  No.  8.  Vector  Analysis  and  Quaternions, 
by  Alexander  Macfarlane.  No.  9.  Differential  Equations,  by 
William  Woolsey  Johnson.  No.  10.  The  Solution  of  Equations, 
by  Mansfield  Merriman.  No.  11.  Functions  of  a  Complex.  Variable, 
by  Thomas  S.  Fiske. 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  00 

Merriman's  Method  of  Least  Squares 8vo,  2  00 

Solution  of  Equations 8vo,  1  00 

Rice  and  Johnson's  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus.     2  vols.  in  one. 

Large  12mo,  1  50 

Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Differential  Calculus Large  12mo,  3  00 

Smith's  History  of  Modern  Mathematics 8vo,  1  00 

*  Veblen  and  Lennes's  Introduction  to  the  Real  Infinitesimal  Analysis  of  One 

Variable , 8vo,  2  00 

*  Waterbury's  Vest  Pocket  Hand-book  of  Mathematics  for  Engineers. 

2J  X  5|  inches,  mor.  100 

Weld's  Determinants 8vo,  1  00 

Wood's  Elements  of  Co-ordinate  Geometry 8vo,  2  00 

Woodward's  Probability  and  Theory  of  Errors 8vo,  1  00 

12 


MECHANICAL   ENGINEERING. 

MATERIALS   OF   ENGINEERING,  STEAM-ENGINES   AND    BOILERS. 

Bacon's  Forge  Practice 12mo,  $1  50 

Baldwin's  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings 12mo,  2  50 

Barr's  Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  2  50 

*  Bartlett's  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  3  00 

*  "                                                Abridged  Ed 8vo,  150 

*  Burr's  Ancient  and  Modern  Engineering  and  the  Isthmian  Canal 8vo,  3  50 

Carpenter's  Experimental  Engineering 8vo,  6  00 

Heating  and  Ventilating  Buildings 8vo,  4  00 

Clerk's  Gas  and  Oil  Engine.      (New  edition  in  press.) 

Compton's  First  Lessons  in  Metal  Working 12mo,  1  50 

Compton  and  De  Groodt's  Speed  Lathe 12mo,  1  50 

Coolidge's  Manual  of  Drawing 8vo,  paper,  1  00 

Coolidge  and  Freeman's  Elements  of  Geenral  Drafting  for  Mechanical  En- 
gineers  Oblong  4to,  2  50 

Cromwell's  Treatise  on  Belts  and  Pulleys 12mo,  1  50 

Treatise  on  Toothed  Gearing 12mo,  1  50 

Dingey's  Machinery  Pattern  Making ' 12mo,  2  00 

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Rope  Driving 12mo,  2  00 

Gill's  Gas  and  Fuel  Analysis  for  Engineers 12mo,  1  25 

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Hering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) 16mo,  mor.  2  50 

*  Hobart  and  Ellis's  High  Speed  Dynamo  Electric  Machinery 8vo,  6  00 

Hutton's  Gas  Engine 8vo,  5  00 

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Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  50 

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Machine  Design: 

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Kent's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket-Book .- 16mo,  mor.  5  00 

Kerr's  Power  and  Power  Transmission.  . 8vo,  2  00 

Kimball  and  Barr's  Machine  Design.     (In  Press.) 

Levin's  Gas  Engine.      (In  Press.) 8vo, 

Leonard's  Machine  Shop  Tools  and  Methods 8vo,  4  00 

*  Lorenz's  Modern  Refrigerating  Machinery.   (Pope,  Haven,  and  Dean)..8vo,  4  00 
MacCord's  Kinematics;  or,  Practical  Mechanism 8vo,  5  00 

Mechanical  Drawing 4to,  4  00 

Velocity  Diagrams 8vo,  1  50 

MacFarland's  Standard  Reduction  Factors  for  Gases 8vo,  1  50 

Mahan's  Industrial  Drawing.      (Thompson.) 8vo,  3  50 

Mehrtens's  Gas  Engine  Theory  and  Design Large  12mo,  2  50 

Oberg's  Handbook  of  Small  Tools Large  12mo,  3  00 

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Peele's  Compressed  Air  Plant  for  Mines 8vo,  3  00 

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*  Porter's  Engineering  Reminiscences,  1855  to  1882 8vo,  3  00 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  00 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design. 8vo,  3  00 

Richards's  Compressed  Air 12mo,  1  50 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  00 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  00 

Smith  (A.  W.)  and  Marx's  Machine  Design 8vo,  3  00 

Smith's  (O.)  Press-working  of  Metals 8vo,  3  00 

Sorel's  Carbureting  and  Combustion  in  Alcohol  Engines.     (Woodward  and 

Preston.) Large  12mo,  3  00 

Stone's  Practical  Testing  of  Gas  and  Gas  Meters 8vo,  3  50 

13 


Thurston's  Animal  as  a  Machine  and  Prime  Motor,  and  the  Laws  of  Energetics. 

12mo,  $1  00 

Treatise  on  Friction  and  Lost  Work  in  Machinery  and  Mill  Work.  .  .8vo,  3  00 

*  Tillson's  Complete  Automobile  Instructor 16mo,  1  50 

*  Titsworth's  Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing Oblong  8vo,  1  25 

Warren's  Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing 8vo,  7  50 

*  Waterbury's  Vest  Pocket  Hand-book  of  Mathematics  for  Engineers. 

2£X5f  inches,  mor.  1  00 
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Wood's  Turbines 8vo,  2  50 


MATERIALS   OF  ENGINEERING. 

*  Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures 8vo,  7  50 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering 8vo,  7  50 

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Steels,  Steel-Making  Alloys  and  Graphite Large  12mo,  3  00 

Johnson's  (J.  B.)  Materials  of  Construction 8vo,  6  00 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  7  50 

Maire's  Modern  Pigments  and  their  Vehicles 12mo,  2  00 

Martens's  Handbook  on  Testing  Materials.     (Henning.) 8vo,  7  50 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  00 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials 8vo,  5  00 

*  Strength  of  Materials 12mo,  1  00 

Metcalf 's  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users 12mo,  2  00 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paint  and  Varnish 8vo,  3  00 

Smith's  ((A.  W.)  Materials  of  Machines 12mo,  1  00 

Smith's  (H.  E.)  Strength  of  Material 12mo, 

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Part  I.     Non-metallic  Materials  of  Engineering 8vo,  2  00 

Part  II.     Iron  and  Steel 8vo,  3  50 

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Constituents 8vo,  2  50 

Wood's  (De  V.)  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  3  00 

Treatise  on    the    Resistance   of    Materials    and    an    Appendix    on    the 

Preservation  of  Timber 8vo,  2  00 

Wood's  (M.  P.)  Rustless  Coatings:    Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and 

Steel 8vo,  4  00 


STEAM-ENGINES   AND   BOILERS. 

Berry's  Temperature-entropy  Diagram 12mo,  2  00 

Carnot's  Reflections  on  the  Motive  Power  of  Heat.     (Thurston.) 12mo,  1  50 

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Ford's  Boiler  Making  for  Boiler  Makers 18mo,  1  00 

*  Gebhardt's  Steam  Power  Plant  Engineering : 8vo,  6  00 

Goss's  Locomotive  Performance 8vo,  5  00 

Hemenway's  Indicator  Practice  and  Steam-engine  Economy 12mo,  2  00 

Button's  Heat  and  Heat-engines 8vo,  5  00 

Mechanical  Engineering  of  Power  Plants 8vo,  5  00 

Kent's  Steam  boiler  Economy 8vo,  4  00 

14 


Kneass's  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Injector 8vo,  $1  50 

MacCord's  Slide-valves 8vo,  2  00 

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Tables  of  the  Properties  of  Steam  and  Other  Vapors  and  Temperature- 
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Valve-gears  for  Steam-engines 8vo.  2  50 

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Smart's  Handbook  of  Engineering  Laboratory  Practice 12mo,  2.  50 

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Spangler's  Notes  on  Thermodynamics 12mo.  1  00 

Valve-gears 8vo,  2  50 

Spangler,  Greene,  and  Marshall's  Elements  of  Steam-engineering 8vo  3  00 

Thomas's  Steam-turbines 8vo.  4  00 

Thurston's  Handbook  of  Engine  and  Boiler  Trials,  and  the  Use  of  the  Indi- 
cator and  the  Prony  Brake 8vo,  5  00 

Handy  Tables .^ 8vo,  1  50 

Manual  of  Steam-boilers,  their  Designs,  Construction,  and  Operation  8vo,  5  00 

Manual  of  the  Steam-engine 2vols..  8vo.  10  00 

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Wehrenfennig's  Analysis   and  Softening  of  Boiler  Feed- water.    (Patterson). 

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Weisbach's  Heat,  Steam,  and  Steam-engines.     (Du  Bois.) 8vo.  5  00 

Whitham's  Steam-engine  Design 8vo,  5  00 

Wood's  Thermodynamics,  Heat  Motors,  and  Refrigerating  Machines.  .  .8vo,  4  00 


MECHANICS   PURE  AND    APPLIED. 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo.  6  00 

Notes  and  Examples  in  Mechanics 8vo.  2  00 

Dana's  Text-book  of  Elementary  Mechanics  for  Colleges  and  Schools  .12mo,  1  50 
Du  Bois's  Elementary  Principles  of  Mechanics: 

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Vol.  II.     Statics 8vo.  4  00 

Mechanics  of  Engineering.     Vol.    I Small  4to,  7  50 

Vol.  II Small  4to,  10  00 

*  Greene's  Structural  Mechanics 8vo,  2  50 

James's  Kinematics  of  a  Point  and  the  Rational  Mechanics  of  a  Particle. 

Large  12mo,  2  00 

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*  Vol.  II,  Kinematics  and  Kinetics.  12mo.  1  50 

.Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo.  4  00 

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15 


MEDICAL. 

*  Abderhalden's  Physiological   Chemistry  in   Thirty  Lectures.     (Hall   and 

Defren.) 8vo,  $5  00 

von  Behring's  Suppression  of  Tuberculosis.     (Bolduan.) 12mo,     1  00 

Bolduan's  Immune  Sera 12mo,     1  50 

Bordet's  Studies  in  Immunity.      (Gay).     (In  Press.) 8vo, 

Davenport's  Statistical  Methods  with  Special  Reference  to  Biological  Varia- 
tions  16mo,  mor.  1  50 

Ehrlich's  Collected  Studies  on  Immunity.     (Bolduan.) 8vo,     6  00 

*  Fischer's  Physiology  of  Alimentation Large  12mo,     2  00 

de-Fursac's  Manual  of  Psychiatry.      (Rosanoff  and  Collins.)..  .  .Large  12mo,     2  50 

Hammarsten's  Text-book  on  Physiological  Chemistry.     (Mandel.) 8vo, 

Jackson's  Directions  for  Laboratory  Work  in  Physiological  Chemistry.  .8vo, 

Lassar-Cohn's  Practical  Urinary  Analysis.      (Lorenz.) 12mo, 

Mandel's  Hand-book  for  the  Bio-Chemical  Laboratory 12mo, 

*  Pauli's  Physical  Chemistry  in  the  Service  of  Medicine.      (Fischer.)  ..12mo, 

*  Pozzi-Escot's  Toxins  and  Venoms  and  their  Antibodies.     (Cohn.).  .  12mo, 

Rostoski's  Serum  Diagnosis.     (Bolduan.) 12mo, 

Ruddiman's  Incompatibilities  in  Prescriptions 8vo,     2  00 

Whys  in  Pharmacy 12mo,  1  00 

Salkowski's  Physiological  and  Pathological  Chemistry.     (Orndorff.)  8vo,  250 

*  Satterlee's  Outlines  of  Human  Embryology 12mo,  1   25 

Smith's  Lecture  Notes  on  Chemistry  for  Dental  Students 8vo,  2  50 

*  Whipple's  Tyhpoid  Fever Large  12mo,  3  00 

Woodhull's  Notes  on  Military  Hygiene. . . 16mo,  1  50 

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Bolland's  Encyclopedia  of  Founding  and  Dictionary  of  Foundry  Terms  used 

in  the  Practice  of  Moulding 12mo,  3  00 

Iron  Founder 12mo,  2  50 

Supplement 12mo,  2  50 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects 12mo,  1  00 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals:  A  Reference  Book : 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

*  Iles's  Lead-smelting 12mo,  2  50 

Johnson's    Rapid    Methods   for    the   Chemical   Analysis   of   Special   Steels, 

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Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Le  Chatelier's  High- temperature  Measurements.     (Boudouard — Burgess.) 

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Metcalf 's  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users 12mo.  2  00 

Minet's  Production  of  Aluminum  and  its  Industrial  Use.     (Waldo.).  .  12mo,  2  50 

Ruer's  Elements  of  Metallography.     (Mathewson) 8vo, 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines 12mo,  1  00 

Tate  and  Stone's  Foundry  Practice 12mo,  2  00 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering.     In  Three  Parts 8vo,  8  00 

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Part  II.     Iron  and  Steel 8vo,  3  50 

Part  III.  A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents 8vo,  2  50 

Ulke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining 8vo,  3  00 

West's  American  Foundry  Practice 12mo,  2  50 

Moulders'  Text  Book 12mo,  2  50 

16 


MINERALOGY. 

Baskerville's  Chemical  Elements.     (In  Preparation.). 

Boyd's  Map  of  Southwest  Virginia Pocket-book  form.  $2  00 

*  Browning's  Introduction  to  the  Rarer  Elements 8vo,  1   50 

Brush's  Manual  of  Determinative  Mineralogy.     (Penfield.) 8vo,  4  00 

Butler's  Pocket  Hand-book  of  Minerals. 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

Chester's  Catalogue  of  Minerals 8vo,  paper,    1  00 

Cloth,  1  25 

*  Crane's  Gold  and  Silver 8vo,  5  00 

Dana's  First  Appendix  to  Dana's  New  "System  of  Mineralogy".  .Large  8vo,  1  00 
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Large  8vo, 

Manual  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrography 12mo,  2  00 

Minerals  and  How  to  Study  Them 12mo,  1  50 

System  of  Mineralogy Large  8vo,  half  leather,  12  50 

Text-book  of  Mineralogy 8vo,  4  00 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects 12mo,  1  00 

Eakle's  Mineral  Tables , 8vo,  1  25 

Eckel's  Stone  and  Clay  Products  Used  in  Engineering.      (In  Preparation). 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals:  A  Reference  Book 16mo,  mor.  3  00- 

Groth's  Introduction  to  Chemical  Crystallography  (Marshall) 12mo,  1  25 

*  Hayes's  Handbook  for  Field  Geologists 16mo,  mor.  1  50 

Iddings's  Igneous  Rocks 8vo,  5  00 

Rock  Minerals 8vo,  5  00 

Johannsen's  Determination  of  Rock-forming  Minerals  in  Thin  Sections.  8vo, 

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pipe  12mo,  60 

Merrill's  Non-metallic  Minerals:  Their  Occurrence  and  Uses 8vo,  4  00 

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Washington's  Manual  of  the  Chemical  Analysis  of  Rocks.  ,  ,,,,,, 8vo,  2  00 


MINING. 

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Boyd's  Map  of  Southwest  Virginia Pocket-book  form,  2  00 

*  Crane's  Gold  and  Silver 8vo,  5  00 

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*  8vo,  mor.  5  00 

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Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives 8vo,  4  00 

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Ihlseng's  Manual  of  Mining 8vo,  5  00 

*  Iles's  Lead  Smelting. 12mo,  2  50 

Peele's  Compressed  Air  Plant  for  Mines 8vo,  3  00 

Riemer's  Shaft  Sinking  Under  Difficult  Conditions.     (Corning  and  Peele).8vo,  3  00 

*  Weaver's  Military  Explosives 8vo,  3  00 

Wilson's  Hydraulic  and  Placer  Mining.     2d  edition,  rewritten 12mo,  2  50 

Treatise  on  Practical  and  Theoretical  Mine  Ventilation 12mo,  1  25 

17 


SANITARY   SCIENCE. 

Association  of  State  and  National  Food  and  Dairy  Departments,  Hartford 

Meeting,  1906 8vo,  $3  00 

Jamestown  Meeting,  1907 8vo,  3  00 

*  Bashore's  Outlines  of  Practical  Sanitation 12mo,  1  25 

Sanitation  of  a  Country  House 12mo,  1  00 

Sanitation  of  Recreation  Camps  and  Parks 12mo,  1  00 

Folwell's  Sewerage.      (Designing,  Construction,  and  Maintenance.) 8vo,  3  00 

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Fowler's  Sewage  Works  Analyses 12mo,  2  00 

Fuertes's  Water-filtration  Works 12mo,  2  50 

Water  and  Public  Health 12mo,  1  50 

Gerhard's  Guide  to  Sanitary  Inspections 12mo,  1  50 

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